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TEACHING
FRENCH THROUGH MUSIC IN
THE FRENCH
IMMERSION KINDERGARTEN CLASSROOM Sharyn Power-Piercey Elizabeth Murphy |
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French
Immersion is estimated to be Athe most
effective approach available to second language teaching in the school
setting@ (Genesee,
1994, p 37). Nonetheless, concerns prevail with regard to students= overall oral language proficiency
(Bonnar, n.d.; Cummins, 2000; These intralingual errors are caused by
the students= tendency to
simplify and overgeneralize the morphological rules of the French language
based on what they already know [in English]Y.Since communication as opposed to accuracy was
emphasized in the classroom, much of the negative transfer becomes fossilized
interlanguage. (p. 4)
To address this
inaccuracy, some studies (e.g. Boland-Willems, Dupont, Fluette, Lentz,
Maurice, & Molgat, 1988; Bonnar, 1988; Cummins, 1988; Lapkin &
Carroll, 1988; Mandin & Desrochers, 1991; Marrie & Netten, 1991;
Netten, 1991; Netten & Spain, 1989; Tardif, 1994) proposed various
recommendations that focus primarily on attending to morphological and
syntactical aspects of French, concepts which are developed in the grades one
to three curricula (Boland-Willems, et al.). However, Weber and Tardif (1991,
as cited in Halsall, 1998) found that French Immersion kindergarten students
do not engage in any sort of grammatical analysis, and only memorize words
that are significant to them in the kindergarten context. Furthermore,
Boland-Willems and colleagues caution that French Immersion kindergarteners
do not possess a sufficient linguistic base to begin learning any kind of
formal grammar. Krashen=s (1982) Input Hypothesis calls for Anatural communicative inputYthat is appropriate for his/her current
stage of linguistic competence@ (Schütz, p 11).
To develop second language oral skills at the kindergarten level, teachers
should capitalize on various activities or projects focused on deepening
students= knowledge
of language (Cummins, 2000, p. 30). The French Immersion kindergarten
language arts curriculum guide for The focus of
this paper is the use of music in second-language learning at the
kindergarten level in the context of the Newfoundland and Labrador French
immersion program, presented through a review of research in musical
development in the young child and music research in learning and second
language acquisition. A sample integrated music/second-language instructional
approach will be then presented. Musical Development in the Young Child AMusical
experiences are inextricably woven into the very fabric of infancy and
childhood@ (McParland,
2000, p. 1). Studies have shown that Aearly
childhood musical experiences in the form of lullabies, musical crib mobiles,
and most especially, musical interactions where the baby is an active
participant, can aid in the development of the neural networks necessary for
later music processing@ (Olsho,
1984; Trehub, Bull, and Thorpe, 1984, as cited in Hodges, 2002, p. 3).
Furthermore, Athe type of
baby talk typically spoken to infants emphasizes pitch, timbre, dynamic
inflections, and rhythm patterns in order to convey meaning@ (Hodges, p. 6). Psychological and
linguistic studies reveal that the interaction between music and language
acquisition is activated in an infant as early as four days old (Fonesca
Mora, 2000, p.148). AOpportunities,
not just to hear music, but to interact in musical games and activities are
critical to emotional and psychological development@ (Dissanayake, 2000; Gembris &
Davidson, 2002, as cited in Hodges, p. 14). Therefore, it is not surprising
that Hodges deems the home environment critical to musical development in the
earliest years. Hodges
(2002) provides a clear path of musical development throughout a child=s infancy and early childhood. By age
five, the child can extract an underlying pulse from surface rhythm, enabling
him to keep a steady beat (p. 13). Also, in melodic development, the
five-year-old Ais now able
to sing an entire song in the same key without modulating, with an increasing
awareness of a set of pitches instead of just contour@ (Ibid.). These natural developmental advances would suggest that music has a
much broader effect that goes beyond the aesthetic merit of music (Persellin,
2001), which Amakes music
a powerful vehicle for teachers@ (McParland,
2000, p. 3). Music and Second-Language Learning Since
kindergarten children have little or no linguistic base in the French
language (Boland-Willems, et al., 1988), and musical abilities in rhythm and
melody have already been developed (Hodges, 2002), using music to enhance
second-language learning at the kindergarten level would appear to be
beneficial.ASecond-language
education is one of the disciplines that has explored the incorporation of
music into its curriculum@ (Lowe,
1998, p. 4). AThe
literature abounds with statements regarding the positive effects of music on
first and second language acquisition@ (Medina,
1993, p. 5). Several studies have shown that music, and particularly songs,
helps second language learners to acquire vocabulary, grammatical structures
and idiomatic expressions, to improve spelling and pronunciation, to build
comprehension skills, to develop the linguistic skills of reading, writing,
speaking and listening, and to expand cultural knowledge (Lems, 2001,
p. 1; Little, 1983; (Lowe, 1997, p.17; Medina,
2002, p. 1). Combining language and music also Aencourages deeper processing of information,
dramatically increases reading comprehension and retention, and invigorates
the learning process@ (McParland,
2000, p. 3).
Music use in
the second language classroom is consistent with both of Krashen=s (1982) hypotheses of Comprehensible
Input and Affective Filter ( The Affective Filter Hypothesis states that language
acquisition requires the student to feel confident, relaxed and diverted
(Cook, n.d.; ttaber, n.d.): It is therefore, in the interest of the
second language teacher to provide an environment which evokes positive
emotions. Music does precisely that. Whether learners
simply listen to instrumental music, vocals in the target language, or sing
in unison, it is a pleasurable experience. FurthermoreY singing songs
in unison produces a sense of community and increases student confidence in
the second language. Thus, music, however it is used in the
classroom, evokes positive emotions which can lower the Aaffective filter@ and bring about language acquisition. (Medina,
2002, p. 6)
Although the
students are more relaxed, they are also more attentive than usual when
learning songs, and are therefore, more receptive to learning ( Integration
of music and second language learning is also supported by Music and
its subcomponent, rhythm, have been shown to benefit the rote memorization
process. AA rhythmic
presentation benefits memorization, especially when the verbal information is
meaningful@ (Glazner,
1976; Shepard & Ascher, 1973; Weener, 1971, as cited in Medina, 1993,
p.5). AMusic has
also proven beneficial when the objective has been to retain the meaning of
the verbal information@ (Isem,
1958; Botarri & Evans, 1982, as cited in Medina, p. 5). In a study of
nine primary-age dyslexic boys, Overy (2002, as cited in Rauscher, 2003)
found that music instruction improved rapid temporal processing skills,
phonological skills, and spelling skills. Costa-Giomi (2000, as cited in
Rauscher) found that Achildren who
begin music instruction very early in life are likely to show the greatest
benefits in spatial development@ (p. 5): A meta-analysis of a set of 24
correlational studiesYfound a
strong and reliable association between music instruction and reading test
scores (Butzlaff, 2000). A more recent study found that ninety 6- to
15-year-old boys with music training had significantly better verbal memory
than children without such training. (Ho, Cheung, & Chan, 2003, as cited
in Rauscher, 2003) In a study which incorporated jazz music
into the curriculum, Astudent
confidence soared; student interest increased; and, in some cases, student
achievement improved@ (Renwick,
2002, p. 3). Well
developed aural skills are crucial to successful second language learning
(Dunn, 1977; Failoni, 1993; Gonzalez, 1984; Majhanovich & Robinson, 1979;
Rivers, 1981, as cited in Lowe, 1997). Not to be
confused with the simple act of listening, aural comprehension involves
listening, evaluating, comprehending and interpreting, all of which are basic
to second language development (La maternelle, 1992, p.45). Therefore, aural comprehension is one of
the most essential components of the kindergarten French immersion experience
(Ibid.). Similarly,
music is initially acquired through the aural sense (Hodges, 1980, as cited
in Lowe, 2000). AMusical
thinking is distinguished by audiating@ (Gordon,
1987, as cited in Alvarez & Berg, 2002, p.122), which is Ahearing in one=s mind the sound of music that Ywe have heard, as well as music we are
predictingY. Audiation
is to music what language is to thinking@ (Azzara,
2002, p.174). AListening to
music involves many skills including perception, comprehension, and analysis
of musicY. It isYa fundamental music skill and a requisite
for all other music skills@ (Persellin,
2001, p. 5). AResearchers
and educators suggest that if listening is an essential skill required for
both language and music acquisition, incorporation of music learning in the
second language classroom should be considered@ (Lowe, 1997, p.17). ANative language acquisition takes place
before children can read and without explicit instruction of any kind@ (Medina, 1993, p. 2). There is
substantial evidence that incidental vocabulary acquisition occurs by
listening to oral stories (Cohen, 1968; Elley, 1989; Eller, Papps, &
Brown, 1988, as cited in Medina) Abecause
familiar vocabulary and syntax contained in the stories provide meaning to
less familiar vocabulary@ (p. 3). Studies by Wallon (1975), Snow (1977),
Feu and Piñero (1996), and AIt is currently a common practice to use
songs in the classroom to support second language acquisition@ (Medina, 1993, p. 1). However, Aif music is a viable vehicle for second language
acquisition to the same extent as other nonmusical means, then songs can no
longer be regarded as recreational devices, having little instructional value@ (p. 22). Songs can be used to present language, to develop linguistic
aptitudes, and to strengthen reading-readiness skills (Malloch, p.2). ASongs contextually introduce the features
of supra-segmentals (how rhythm, stress, and intonation affect the
pronunciation of [speech] in context). Through songs, students discover the
natural stretching and compacting of the stream ofYspeech@ (Lems, 2001, p. 5). Story songs,
which are stories that have been set to music, provide opportunities for both
language and musical acquisition (Medina, 2000a, p. 1). Given the extensive list
of benefits of integrating music and language, if the content of the oral
story and story song are identical, with the exception of the vehicle of
delivery, then it follows that acquisition of the vocabulary may be enhanced
through the musical version (Medina, 1993). AAlthough meaningful information is memorized
with greater success than less meaningful information, retention is even
greater when more meaningful verbal information is learned with music@ (Medina, p. 7). In a related study,
Medina (2000a) found that Asecond
language learners who listened to the illustrated sung stories acquired an
average of 1.5 words by the end of the treatment, while those who heard the
illustrated spoken rendition of the story acquired an average of 1.0 words@ (p. 2). She concluded, AThis points
to the positive effects which music may have upon language acquisition. More
specifically, it suggests that illustrated story-songs may produce greater
vocabulary acquisition than illustrated traditional spoken stories@ (p. 3). AFurthermore, because of the positive effects
which music has upon second language learners, story songs may motivate and
captivate the attention of second language learners in ways that oral stories
cannot ( Music in the French Immersion
Kindergarten Language Arts Program
First of
all, the students should be introduced to the melody. The melody should be
simple, perhaps even familiar, and the tempo moderate; otherwise, the
children will pay more attention to learning the melody than the lyrics
(Medina, 2000a, p. 8). Melodies that use the pentatonic scale (de, re, mi,
sol, la) are recommended, as they are easy to sing and pose no difficulty to
children (Birkenshaw, 1981, p.5). (This particular melody uses a simple
five-note scale of do, re, mi, fa, sol.) Introducing the melody first
makes pedagogical sense for still another reason. When humans are
simultaneously exposed to several new stimuli, they experience what is
referred to as "secondary task overloading." This cognitive
overstimulation can prevent students from learning the skills which they are
attempting to acquire. Therefore, in order to avoid this effect, it is
advisable to first expose students to the melody of the story-song prior to
introducing the story-song itself. (Medina, 2000a, p. 10) Once
the melody has been adequately internalized, it would be appropriate to study
the rhythm of the song. The students can clap the steady beat as they sing
the melody. When asked if they clapped on every note, they should soon
discover that they did not. The students can then clap the rhythm of the
melody by clapping on every note, thus discovering that they clapped more
often. To emphasize the difference between beat and rhythm, half of the class
can sing the melody clapping the steady beat, while the other half
simultaneously claps the rhythm. When the children are comfortable with both the melody and the rhythm, the key grammatical structures can be extracted from the story: >Qui veut + infinitive + direct object=, and the responses >Pas moi!= and >Moi=. The children clap the steady beat followed by the rhythmic pattern while the teacher sings the words of the first line.
The same process can be used for the other questions in the story that use the same grammatical structure: >Qui veut couper le blé? Qui veut faire du pain? Qui veut manger du pain?= However, upon clapping the rhythm of >Qui veut faire du pain?=, the students should discover that there is something different in the rhythm. This is a prime opportunity to discuss syllabification. The third word in most of the lines is a two-syllable word (semer, couper, manger), but Afaire@ is a monosyllabic word. Therefore, although the steady beat remains the same, the rhythm pattern changes.
The remainder of the lyrics
can now be set to the rest of the melody through the same process: It is not sufficient to simply sing the routines and
patterns which are found in the song's lyrics. Learners must be able
to "transfer" this knowledge to new and different contexts. This
exercise allows learners the opportunity to generate
original utterances using song patterns and routines in different contexts.
(Medina, 2000b, p. 3) Therefore, as an extension to
this melodic grammatical practice, the teacher can sing other questions in
different context, such as >Qui veut fermer Using
a well-known tune to >sing= daily routines and commands is also a means of
integrating music into second language learning (Fonseca Mora, 2000). For example, a clean-up command
could easily be adapted to the tune of ATwinkle, Twinkle, Little Star.@
This
simple song provides a myriad of grammatical lessons with the following
structures: C=est le temps de + verb; avoir
finir de + verb;
imperative form; qui est prêt
à + verb. AThe
more rhythmic and intonated the utterences we teach are, the more holistic
the learning will be@ (Fonseca Mora, 2000, p.151).
Changing
the lyrics to previously learned songs could also impact on language learning.
Edith Butler=s ALuc va à
l=école@ is a recommended song in the
kindergarten curriculum (La maternelle, p.161). Its opening line, ALuc
va à l=école avec son chien Fido,@ has the exact same rhythm as the command a
teacher could possibly use at dismissal time: AFerme ton sac d=école, et cherche ton manteau.@
The
repetitiveness of singing this command each day reinforces the structure of
the command and the rhythm of the utterence, and its musicality instinctively
encourages children to join in and sing as well. Conclusion The
evidence is conclusive to support the claim that Athe
combination of music and a pedagogically-sound technique produce greater
second language acquisition than is possible when using music alone@
(Medina, 2000b, p. 1). ANot only can children benefit from additional exposure to
the second language; songs can provide the classroom teacher with an
alternative means of promoting second language acquisition apart from
nonmusical means such as oral stories@ (Medina, 1993, p. 22). Given the widespread availability
of musical resources today, highly developed musicianship skills are not
necessarily a prerequisite to this approach. Innovativeness, a desired quality
in any effective teacher, is all that is required to teach a second language
through music.
Considering
the concerns over the quality of oral proficiency in French immersion
students, oral development should begin as early as possible. Since research
has found several commonalities between musical and linguistic development
(Lowe, 1998), and when one considers the educational implications of Gardner=s
(1993) theory on multiple intelligences (as cited in Medina, 2002), and
Krashen=s
(1982) hypotheses of Comprehensible Input and Affective Filter (as cited in
Medina, 2000), it follows that music Ais a viable vehicle for second language acquisition@
(Medina 1993, p. 18).
Furthermore, given the limited linguistic abilities for French immersion
kindergarteners to begin learning any kind of formal grammar (Boland-Willems, et al., 1988, p. 41),
music should be embraced as an integral part of the French immersion
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