|
TEACHING
FRENCH THROUGH MUSIC IN
THE FRENCH
IMMERSION KINDERGARTEN CLASSROOM Sharyn Power-Piercey Elizabeth
Murphy |
|
French
Immersion is estimated to be Athe most effective approach available to
second language teaching in the school setting@ (Genesee, 1994, p 37). Nonetheless, concerns
prevail with regard to students= overall
oral language proficiency (Bonnar, n.d.; Cummins, 2000; These intralingual
errors are caused by the students= tendency to
simplify and overgeneralize the morphological rules
of the French language based on what they already know [in English]Y.Since
communication as opposed to accuracy was emphasized in the classroom, much of
the negative transfer becomes fossilized interlanguage.
(p. 4) To address
this inaccuracy, some studies (e.g. Boland-Willems,
Dupont, Fluette, Lentz,
Maurice, & Molgat, 1988; Bonnar,
1988; Cummins, 1988; Lapkin & Carroll, 1988; Mandin & Desrochers, 1991; Marrie & Netten, 1991; Netten, 1991; Netten &
Spain, 1989; Tardif, 1994) proposed various recommendations that focus primarily
on attending to morphological and syntactical aspects of French, concepts
which are developed in the grades one to three curricula (Boland-Willems, et al.). However, Weber and Tardif (1991, as
cited in Halsall, 1998) found that French Immersion
kindergarten students do not engage in any sort of grammatical analysis, and
only memorize words that are significant to them in the kindergarten context.
Furthermore, Boland-Willems and colleagues caution
that French Immersion kindergarteners do not possess a sufficient linguistic
base to begin learning any kind of formal grammar. Krashen=s (1982)
Input Hypothesis calls for Anatural
communicative inputYthat is appropriate
for his/her current stage of linguistic competence@ (Schütz,
p 11). To develop second language oral skills at the kindergarten level,
teachers should capitalize on various activities or projects focused on
deepening students= knowledge
of language (Cummins, 2000, p. 30). The French Immersion kindergarten
language arts curriculum guide for The focus of
this paper is the use of music in second-language learning at the
kindergarten level in the context of the Newfoundland and Labrador French
immersion program, presented through a review of research in musical
development in the young child and music research in learning and second
language acquisition. A sample integrated music/second-language instructional
approach will be then presented. Musical Development in the Young Child AMusical
experiences are inextricably woven into the very fabric of infancy and
childhood@ (McParland, 2000, p. 1). Studies have shown that Aearly childhood
musical experiences in the form of lullabies, musical crib mobiles, and most
especially, musical interactions where the baby is an active participant, can
aid in the development of the neural networks necessary for later music
processing@ (Olsho, 1984; Trehub, Bull, and
Thorpe, 1984, as cited in Hodges, 2002, p. 3). Furthermore, Athe type of
baby talk typically spoken to infants emphasizes pitch, timbre, dynamic
inflections, and rhythm patterns in order to convey meaning@ (Hodges, p. 6). Psychological and
linguistic studies reveal that the interaction between music and language
acquisition is activated in an infant as early as four days old (Fonesca Mora, 2000, p.148). AOpportunities, not just
to hear music, but to interact in musical games and activities are critical
to emotional and psychological development@ (Dissanayake, 2000; Gembris & Davidson, 2002, as cited in Hodges, p. 14).
Therefore, it is not surprising that Hodges deems the home environment
critical to musical development in the earliest years. Hodges
(2002) provides a clear path of musical development throughout a child=s infancy and early childhood. By age
five, the child can extract an underlying pulse from surface rhythm, enabling
him to keep a steady beat (p. 13). Also, in melodic development, the
five-year-old Ais now able to
sing an entire song in the same key without modulating, with an increasing
awareness of a set of pitches instead of just contour@ (Ibid.). These natural developmental advances would suggest that music has a
much broader effect that goes beyond the aesthetic merit of music (Persellin, 2001), which Amakes music a
powerful vehicle for teachers@ (McParland, 2000, p. 3). Music and Second-Language Learning Since kindergarten
children have little or no linguistic base in the French language (Boland-Willems, et al., 1988), and musical abilities in rhythm
and melody have already been developed (Hodges, 2002), using music to enhance
second-language learning at the kindergarten level would appear to be beneficial.ASecond-language
education is one of the disciplines that has explored the incorporation of
music into its curriculum@ (Lowe,
1998, p. 4). AThe literature
abounds with statements regarding the positive effects of music on first and
second language acquisition@ (Medina,
1993, p. 5). Several studies have shown that music, and particularly songs,
helps second language learners to acquire vocabulary, grammatical structures
and idiomatic expressions, to improve spelling and pronunciation, to build
comprehension skills, to develop the linguistic skills of reading, writing,
speaking and listening, and to expand cultural knowledge (Lems, 2001, p. 1; Little, 1983; (Lowe, 1997, p.17; Medina, 2002, p. 1). Combining language
and music also Aencourages deeper
processing of information, dramatically increases reading comprehension and
retention, and invigorates the learning process@ (McParland, 2000, p. 3). Music use in
the second language classroom is consistent with both of Krashen=s (1982) hypotheses of Comprehensible
Input and Affective Filter ( The Affective Filter Hypothesis states that language
acquisition requires the student to feel confident, relaxed and diverted
(Cook, n.d.; ttaber, n.d.): It is therefore, in the interest of the
second language teacher to provide an environment which evokes positive
emotions. Music does precisely that. Whether learners
simply listen to instrumental music, vocals in the target language, or sing
in unison, it is a pleasurable experience. FurthermoreY singing
songs in unison produces a sense of community and increases student
confidence in the second language. Thus, music, however it is used in the
classroom, evokes positive emotions which can lower the Aaffective filter@ and bring about language acquisition.
(Medina, 2002, p. 6) Although the
students are more relaxed, they are also more attentive than usual when
learning songs, and are therefore, more receptive to learning ( Integration
of music and second language learning is also supported by Music and
its subcomponent, rhythm, have been shown to benefit the rote memorization
process. AA rhythmic
presentation benefits memorization, especially when the verbal information is
meaningful@ (Glazner, 1976; Shepard & Ascher,
1973; Weener, 1971, as cited in Medina, 1993, p.5).
AMusic has also
proven beneficial when the objective has been to retain the meaning of the
verbal information@ (Isem, 1958; Botarri &
Evans, 1982, as cited in Medina, p. 5). In a study of nine primary-age
dyslexic boys, Overy (2002, as cited in Rauscher, 2003) found that music instruction improved
rapid temporal processing skills, phonological skills, and spelling skills.
Costa-Giomi (2000, as cited in Rauscher)
found that Achildren who begin
music instruction very early in life are likely to show the greatest benefits
in spatial development@ (p. 5): A meta-analysis of a set of 24 correlational studiesYfound
a strong and reliable association between music instruction and reading test
scores (Butzlaff, 2000). A more recent study found
that ninety 6- to 15-year-old boys with music training had significantly
better verbal memory than children without such training. (Ho, Cheung, &
Chan, 2003, as cited in Rauscher, 2003) In a study which incorporated jazz music
into the curriculum, Astudent confidence
soared; student interest increased; and, in some cases, student achievement
improved@ (Renwick, 2002, p. 3). Well
developed aural skills are crucial to successful second language learning
(Dunn, 1977; Failoni, 1993; Gonzalez, 1984; Majhanovich & Robinson, 1979; Rivers, 1981, as cited
in Lowe, 1997). Not to be
confused with the simple act of listening, aural comprehension involves
listening, evaluating, comprehending and interpreting, all of which are basic
to second language development (La maternelle,
1992, p.45). Therefore,
aural comprehension is one of the most essential components of the
kindergarten French immersion experience (Ibid.). Similarly, music is initially acquired
through the aural sense (Hodges, 1980, as cited in Lowe, 2000). AMusical thinking is
distinguished by audiating@ (Gordon, 1987, as cited in Alvarez &
Berg, 2002, p.122), which is Ahearing in one=s mind the sound of music that Ywe have heard,
as well as music we are predictingY.
Audiation is to music what language is to thinking@ (Azzara, 2002,
p.174). AListening to music
involves many skills including perception, comprehension, and analysis of musicY. It isYa fundamental music skill and a requisite
for all other music skills@ (Persellin, 2001, p. 5). AResearchers and
educators suggest that if listening is an essential skill required for both
language and music acquisition, incorporation of music learning in the second
language classroom should be considered@ (Lowe,
1997, p.17). ANative language
acquisition takes place before children can read and without explicit
instruction of any kind@ (Medina,
1993, p. 2). There is substantial evidence that incidental vocabulary
acquisition occurs by listening to oral stories (Cohen, 1968; Elley, 1989; Eller, Papps,
& Brown, 1988, as cited in Medina) Abecause familiar
vocabulary and syntax contained in the stories provide meaning to less
familiar vocabulary@ (p. 3). Studies by Wallon
(1975), Snow (1977), Feu and Piñero
(1996), and AIt is
currently a common practice to use songs in the classroom to support second
language acquisition@ (Medina,
1993, p. 1). However, Aif music is a
viable vehicle for second language acquisition to the same extent as other nonmusical means, then songs can
no longer be regarded as recreational devices, having little instructional
value@ (p. 22). Songs can be used to present language,
to develop linguistic aptitudes, and to strengthen reading-readiness skills (Malloch, p.2). ASongs
contextually introduce the features of supra-segmentals
(how rhythm, stress, and intonation affect the pronunciation of [speech] in
context). Through songs, students discover the natural stretching and
compacting of the stream ofYspeech@ (Lems, 2001, p. 5). Story songs,
which are stories that have been set to music, provide opportunities for both
language and musical acquisition (Medina, 2000a, p. 1). Given the extensive
list of benefits of integrating music and language, if the content of the
oral story and story song are identical, with the exception of the vehicle of
delivery, then it follows that acquisition of the vocabulary may be enhanced
through the musical version (Medina, 1993). AAlthough meaningful
information is memorized with greater success than less meaningful information,
retention is even greater when more meaningful verbal information is learned
with music@ (Medina, p.
7). In a related study, Medina (2000a) found that Asecond language
learners who listened to the illustrated sung stories acquired an average of 1.5
words by the end of the treatment, while those who heard the illustrated
spoken rendition of the story acquired an average of 1.0 words@ (p. 2). She concluded, AThis points to the positive effects which
music may have upon language acquisition. More specifically, it suggests that
illustrated story-songs may produce greater vocabulary acquisition than
illustrated traditional spoken stories@ (p. 3). AFurthermore, because of
the positive effects which music has upon second language learners, story
songs may motivate and captivate the attention of second language learners in
ways that oral stories cannot ( Music in the French Immersion
Kindergarten Language Arts Program First of
all, the students should be introduced to the melody. The melody should be
simple, perhaps even familiar, and the tempo moderate; otherwise, the
children will pay more attention to learning the melody than the lyrics
(Medina, 2000a, p. 8). Melodies that use the pentatonic scale (de, re, mi,
sol, la) are recommended, as they are easy to sing and pose no difficulty to
children (Birkenshaw, 1981, p.5). (This particular
melody uses a simple five-note scale of do, re, mi, fa,
sol.) (Insert Figure 1 here) Introducing the melody first
makes pedagogical sense for still another reason. When humans are simultaneously
exposed to several new stimuli, they experience what is referred to as
"secondary task overloading." This cognitive overstimulation
can prevent students from learning the skills which they are attempting to
acquire. Therefore, in order to avoid this effect, it is advisable to first
expose students to the melody of the story-song prior to introducing the
story-song itself. (Medina, 2000a, p. 10) Once
the melody has been adequately internalized, it would be appropriate to study
the rhythm of the song. The students can clap the steady beat as they sing
the melody. When asked if they clapped on every note, they should soon
discover that they did not. The students can then clap the rhythm of the
melody by clapping on every note, thus discovering that they clapped more
often. To emphasize the difference between beat and rhythm, half of the class
can sing the melody clapping the steady beat, while the other half
simultaneously claps the rhythm. When
the children are comfortable with both the melody and the rhythm, the key
grammatical structures can be extracted from the story: >Qui
veut + infinitive + direct object=,
and the responses >Pas moi!=
and >Moi=.
The children clap the steady beat followed by the rhythmic pattern while the
teacher sings the words of the first line. (Insert Figure 2 here) The
same process can be used for the other questions in the story that use the
same grammatical structure:
>Qui
veut couper le blé? Qui veut faire du pain? Qui veut manger du pain?= However,
upon clapping the rhythm of >Qui veut faire du pain?=, the students should discover that there is something
different in the rhythm.
This is a prime opportunity to discuss syllabification. The third word in most of
the lines is a two-syllable word (semer, couper, manger), but Afaire@
is a monosyllabic word.
Therefore, although the steady beat remains the same, the rhythm pattern
changes. (Insert Figure 3 here) The
remainder of the lyrics can now be set to the rest of the melody through the same
process: It is not sufficient to
simply sing the routines and patterns which are found in the song's lyrics.
Learners must be able to "transfer" this knowledge to new and
different contexts. This exercise allows learners the opportunity to generate
original utterances using song patterns and routines in different contexts.
(Medina, 2000b, p. 3) Therefore,
as an extension to this melodic grammatical practice, the teacher can sing
other questions in different context, such as >Qui veut
fermer Using
a well-known tune to >sing= daily routines and commands is also a means of
integrating music into second language learning
(Fonseca Mora, 2000).
For example, a clean-up command could easily be adapted to the tune of ATwinkle,
Twinkle, Little Star.@ (Insert Figure 4 here) This
simple song provides a myriad of grammatical lessons with the following
structures: C=est
le temps de + verb; avoir
finir de + verb; imperative form; qui est prêt
à
+ verb.
AThe more rhythmic and intonated the utterences we teach are, the more holistic the learning
will be@
(Fonseca Mora, 2000, p.151). Changing
the lyrics to previously learned songs could also impact on language
learning. Edith Butler=s ALuc
va à l=école@
is a recommended song in the kindergarten curriculum (La maternelle,
p.161). Its opening line, ALuc
va à l=école
avec son chien Fido,@ has the exact same rhythm as the command a
teacher could possibly use at dismissal time: AFerme
ton sac d=école,
et cherche ton manteau.@
(Insert Figure 5 here) The
repetitiveness of singing this command each day reinforces the structure of
the command and the rhythm of the utterence, and
its musicality instinctively encourages children to join in and sing as well. Conclusion The
evidence is conclusive to support the claim that Athe
combination of music and a pedagogically-sound technique produce greater
second language acquisition than is possible when using music alone@
(Medina, 2000b, p. 1). ANot
only can children benefit from additional exposure to the second language;
songs can provide the classroom teacher with an alternative means of
promoting second language acquisition apart from nonmusical
means such as oral stories@ (Medina, 1993, p. 22). Given the widespread availability
of musical resources today, highly developed musicianship skills are not
necessarily a prerequisite to this approach. Innovativeness, a desired quality
in any effective teacher, is all that is required to teach a second language
through music. Considering
the concerns over the quality of oral proficiency in French immersion
students, oral development should begin as early as possible. Since research
has found several commonalities between musical and linguistic development
(Lowe, 1998), and when one considers the educational implications of Gardner=s
(1993) theory on multiple intelligences (as cited in Medina, 2002), and Krashen=s (1982) hypotheses of Comprehensible Input and Affective
Filter (as cited in Medina, 2000), it follows that music Ais
a viable vehicle for second language acquisition@
(Medina 1993, p. 18).
Furthermore, given the limited linguistic abilities for French immersion
kindergarteners to begin learning any kind of formal grammar (Boland-Willems,
et al., 1988, p. 41), music should be embraced as an integral part of the
French immersion kindergarten language arts program. References Alvarez, B.J. & Berg, M.H. (2002). Musical learning and teaching and the
young child. In Azzara, C.D. (2002). Improvisation. In R. Colwell & C.
Handbook of Research on Music Teaching
and Learning: A Project of the Music Educators National Conference (pp. 171-187). Birkenshaw, L. (1981). Apprenons
par la Musique. Trans. Gertrude Gauthier-Houle. Boardman, E. (2002). The relationship of musical thinking
and learning to classroom instruction. In Boland-Willems, A., Dupont, E., Fluette, C., Lentz, F., Maurice, L., & Molgat,
E. (1988). L=immersion
française au Manitoba: quelques points de repère. Québec français (Mai 1988)70, 38-42. Bonnar, C. (n.d.). L=exactitude
linguistique durant les premières
années de l=immersion hâtive. Le journal d=IMMERSION
Journal, 14(3),29-33. Carrier, M. (n.d.) Why use songs in the second language classroom? Retrieved August 2, 2004,
from the Teaching Language with Music Web site: http://gs.fanshawec.on.ca/tlwm/ Cook, V.J. (n.d.).
Krashen=s Input Hypothesis Model of L2 learning. Retrieved July 6, 2004,
from http://homepage.ntlworld.com/vivian.c/SLA/Krashen.htm Cullen, B. (1998). Music and
song in discussion. The Internet TESL Journal (4)10. Retrieved
Cummins, J. (2000). Immersion education for the
millennium: What we have learned from 30 years of research on
second language immersion.
Retrieved Fonseca Mora, C. (2000). Foreign language acquisition
and melody singing. ELT Journal,
54(2), 146-160. [Electronic version]. Educational
Practice Reports. No 11. Retrieved
http://www/fsj.ualberta.ca/btf/contenu.asp?Niveau2Id=23 Hodges, D.A. (2002). Musicality from birth to
five [Electronic version].
IFMR News, 1(1),
Summer 2002.
Retrieved La Maternelle: Kindergarten French
Immersion Language Guide (1992). Government of Lems,
K. (2001).
Using music in the adult ESL classroom [Electronic version]. Retrieved
Little, J. (1983). Pop and rock music in the
ESL classroom.
TESL Talk, 14 (4), 40-44. Lowe, A. (1997). A model for the integration
of music and second-language learning. Canadian
Music Educator, 38 (3), 17-23. Lowe, A. (1998). Integration of music and
French: A successful story [Electronic version]. International Journal of
Music Education, 38, 33-52. Retrieved Lowe, A. (2000). The integration of music
into the Core French second-language program: What can be achieved? Canadian
Music Educator, 41 (3&4), 21-31. Malloch,
J. (1986).
Tous Ensemble. Ontario: Doubleday
Canada limitée. Mandin,
L., & Desrochers, C. (2002). Building a future on best
practices in French Immersion
B
A fine balance. Retrieved Marrie, B., & Netten, J.E.
(1991).
Communication strategies. The Canadian Modern Language Review, 47(3), 442-462. McParland, R. (2000). Music to their ears [Electronic version]. Instructor
(1990), April, 2000. Retrieved [Electronic version]. National Network For Early Language Learning, 6 (3) Retrieved
http://www.forefrontpublishers.com/eslmusic/articles/02.htm 2004
from http://www.forefrontpublishers.com/eslmusic/articles/05.htm version]. MEXTESOL Journal, 24
(2).
Retrieved http://www.forefrontpublishers.com/eslmusic/articles/03.htm practice [Electronic version]. In J.
Lalas & S. Lee (Eds.), Language,
Literacy, and Academic Development for English Language Learners. Pearson
Educational Publishing. Retrieved http://www.forefrontpublishers.com/eslmusic/articles/06.htm Miller, B.A. (2002). Structuring learning in a
different kind of classroom. In E. Boardman (Ed.). Dimensions of Musical
Learning and Teaching (pp. 69-103). Netten,
J.E. (1991).
Towards a more language oriented second language classroom. MALAVE:
Language Culture and Cognition, Multilingual Matters (pp.
283-304).
Netten, J.E., & Immersion classroom: Implications for
levels of achievement in French language proficiency. The Canadian Modern Language Review,
45(3), 485-501. years [Electronic version]. IFMR News, 1(1),
Summer 2002.
Retrieved Rauscher, F.H. (2003). Can music instruction affect
children's cognitive development? Retrieved http://ceep.crc.uiuc.edu/eecearchive/digests/2003/rauscher03.html Renwick, L. (2002). Learning with jazz: The rich rhythms and
stories in music ignite kids to read,
write, sing, and soar! [Electronic version]. Instructor (1990), January-February,
2002. Retrieved
Schütz,
R. (2002).
Stephen Krashen=s theory of second language
acquisition. Retrieved
ttaber, j. (n.d.). A brief history of ESL instruction:
Theories, methodologies, upheavals. Retrieved Tardif, C. (1994). Classroom teacher talk in Early Immersion. The Canadian Modern Language Review, 50(3), 466-481. |