Optical technology < 1600
    Convex lenses in antiquity
    Greek "burning glasses"  appear in 4th cent BCE Greek drama
    Venetian glass in spectacles, 13th cent.

 Microscope technology from ca.1600
     Galileo ca. 1619 - inverted telescope
     R Hooke (1635 - 1703) - single-lens microscope
         Micrographia (1665): Flea; "cells" as empty boxes in cork
     C Drebbel ca. 1620 - Compound microscope
     A Köhler (1893) uses collimated light (monochromatic)

Cell Theory (1839)
     M Schleiden (1804 - 1881) & T Schwann (1810 - 1882)
         Free formation of cells (1835) vs Omnis cellula e cellula (1855)
         R Remak (1815 - 1865) and (or) R Virchow (1821 - 1902)

19th century Descriptive Cell Biology
    Nucleus (1835) present everywhere  
    Protoplasm appears formless
    Chromosomes "Colored bodies" - Schleiden,1880s; T Boveri (1862 - 1915))
        Nucleic Acid (1889) (R Altmann, 1852 - 1900)
        Boveri - W Sutton Chromosome Theory (1902)
        Mitosis (somatic cells) (1873; 1882: W Fleming (1843 - 1905)
            vs Meiosis (germinal cells) (1876): O Hertwig (1849 - 1922)
                => Cell Cycle
    Flagellae
    Cilia
    Centrioles (1883; named 1895) (Boveri)
    Asters (1882)
    Centromeres (1885)
    Golgi Apparatus (1892)

    Organelles (1884) "little organs": K Möbius (1825 - 1908)
        Chloroplasts (1862; named 1884) H von Mohl (1805 - 1872)
        Mitochondria (1890: "bioblasts"; named 1898): R Altmann (1852 - 1900)
        Maternal inheritance
            in chloroplasts: C Correns (1864 - 1933)
            in mitochondria: H Mitchell (1913 - 2000)
        Endosymbiont Theory: Meves (1868 - 1923). L Margulis (1938 - 2011)
            Confirmed 1978

EB Wilson (1856 - 1939)
    The Cell in Development and Inheritance (1896)
    A Lecture on Mendelism (1908)

20th century Experimental Biology
          Yale University offers first PhD (1861)
          University of California, Berkeley (1868) - public land-grant university [107 Nobel laureates]
          Johns Hopkins University - first US PhD research university (1876)
          University of Chicago - private research university (1890) [98 Nobel laureates]
          Rockefeller Institute - pure research laboratory (1901) [36 Nobel laureates]
          National Institutes of Health (NIH) - post-war government-sponsored labs
                "Cracked" Genetic Code (1965) (M Nirenberg; Nobel, 1968)

    Electron Microscopy (1933) E Hruska (1906 - 1988: Nobel, 1986)
        Cell fractionation: A Claude (1899 - 1983; Nobel, 1974)
        Endoplasmic Reticulum (1955): G Palade (1912 - 2008; Nobel, 1974)
            Ribosomes as specialized microsomes (1950s)
                connected with protein synthesis => Molecular Biology
        "9+2" microtubule arrangement: K Porter (1912 - 1997) [No Nobel, 1974]
        Lysosomes (1955): C de Duve (1917 - 2013; Nobel, 1974)
            Inherited storage diseases: Tay-Sachs Disease, etc
        Nucleoli (1930s)
        Vacuoles (1966): M Birnsteil (1933 - 2014)
        Plasma membranes as lipid bi-layers
            Ion channels - chemi-osmotic 'Pumps': A Hodgkin & A Huxley (Nobel, 1963)

HOMEWORK:
    Why didn't Canadian Keith Porter share the 1974 Nobel Prize?
    Does the creation of research-oriented institutions promote scientific advance?
    What distinguishes 19th century descriptive vs 20th century experimental cell biology?

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