Cultural Diversity and Education: Interface Issues

David F. Philpott, Wayne C. Nesbit,

Mildred F. Cahill , and Gary H. Jeffery

EDITORS' INTRODUCTION

Our colleagues in the Faculty of Education have just published a monograph, Cultural Diversity and Education: Interface Issues. St. John's: Memorial University of Newfoundland, 2004. ISBN 0-888901-382-9. The monograph describes the results of their research and its significance for cultural diversity in education generally, and for Labrador Innu education in particular.  They agreed to share their findings with larger audience locally and globally. The editors of the Morning Watch are happy to select the material from their monograph for presentation in this journal. The editors decided to  select the "Forward" and "Editor's Comments" written by Drs. Philpott and Nesbit, respectively. These two pieces provide introduction to their research project. Secondly, the editors have selected the titles of eight papers included in the monograph, along with the abstract provided by the authors for each of the papers. It is hoped that the presentation made below in this particular format will be helpful to all those who are interested in cultural diversity in education, but especially to students enrolled in the newly instituted Ph.D. program in our Faculty (Amarjit Singh, Ishmael.J. Baksh, George Hache).

FOREWORD

The Innu of Labrador have survived for over 6,000 years as a nomadic people living along the eastern shores of Quebec and Labrador. Formerly known as the Naskapi-Montagnais Indians, the Innu lived in small, clan-like groups that followed the caribou herd migrations and enjoyed a stable, cooperative family life. Their relationship with the land was as solid as their relationship with one another -- interacting, learning and working together for the common good of the group. As with many of Canada’s aboriginal peoples, their transition from a traditional nomadic lifestyle to a more static contemporary community lifestyle paralleled the emergence of the fur trade industry. In the 1950s a number of Innu families settled near the trading post at Northwest River. This settlement eventually developed into the current community of Sheshatshiu and its members formed the Sheshatshiu Band.

Further north, the Mushuau Innu settled under government policy in the community of Davis Inlet. This second community formed the Mushuau Band and moved to the new community of Natuashish in 2002. As was the case with other First Nations groups across Canada, both Labrador band councils embarked upon the long process of lobbying federal and provincial governments for greater management of their lands and greater control over their lives.

The process of gaining self-management was prompted by the systemic social struggles experienced by the Innu, as documented by contemporary media coverage. In recent years there has been a dramatic increase in attention given to the Innu, certainly from a perspective of their struggles with substance abuse, violence and alarmingly high rates of suicide. Arising from this has been a directed focus on the outcomes of the educational systems in these communities and the failure to produce no more than a handful of graduates during the past decade. With alarmingly low attendance, high teacher turn over, and mounting criticism of a curriculum described as culturally insensitive, the Innu have been both clear and highly vocal in calling for control of their children’s future. Central to the discussion surrounding self-management and land claim settlement has been a sense of urgency concerning the educational needs of their children. The Innu have long recognized the link between improved educational opportunity, within a context of traditional language and culture, and enhanced ability for self-management in shaping the future.

This need to address existing educational issues so as to enhance future opportunities was recognized and facilitated in the fall of 2002 when The Department of Indian and Northern Affairs Canada (INAC), the Labrador School Board (LSB) and The Interim Innu Educational Authority (INEK) agreed to conduct a major educational assessment. The project's goal was the documentation of the educational needs of Innu children so as to establish a baseline for improved program delivery. I accepted the role of Principal Researcher and immediately began the process of assembling a team of academic colleagues to assist with what has likely become the most comprehensive assessment project on First Nations children in Canada’s history.

My extensive background in the field of educational assessment, framed by my experience in the area of teacher education related to culturally defined inclusive education, serves as an academic and pragmatic backdrop for my role in the assessment project. Dr. Wayne Nesbit was eager to become involved with the project, bringing a strong background in special education and comprehensive experience in educational program development for children defined as exceptional throughout Newfoundland and Labrador. Next to join the team was Dr. Mildred Cahill who is internationally recognized in the area of career development in rural communities. Her perspective strengthened the team by forging a link between current need and future opportunities. Finally, child psychologist Dr. Gary Jeffery was invited to join the project, bringing years of experience in the areas of assessment, child development and social cognition. This team from Memorial University, characterized by a pragmatic disposition toward improving program development and service delivery, initiated a process of identifying and documenting the needs of Innu children.

This monograph provides the theoretical background for this project, contextualizing the rationale for methodologies and research approaches. The monograph does not reference the project's database; rather, it articulates an extensive global literature review that the research team conducted in its quest to identify “best assessment practices” vis-à-vis such a culturally distinct group of children. In keeping with ethical assessment practices, the results of the assessment project are considered confidential, and as such, will be released to the project stakeholders only.

Our arduous task was facilitated by a spirit of collaboration that was at times overwhelming. It was clear from the start that each of the three main stakeholders were sincerely interested in Innu education and were motivated to obtain accurate assessment information. They offered untold support and collaboration. Discourse and meetings were defined by open dialogue, frank debate, honest answers and an eagerness to collaborate. The Innu welcomed us into their communities and spoke with great candour about their struggles. The Labrador School Board was equally frank in discussing its challenge to provide educational opportunities. We enjoyed full access to information and resources, which allowed us to complete the project on time and within budget guidelines. The staff of INAC were equally supportive and open, setting high expectations for the project while at the same time displaying a willingness to help the team meet these expectations. It is our hope that the degree of cooperation, the commonality of goals and the eagerness to help which characterized this project foreshadows the establishment of a more child-centered model of culturally appropriate education for Innu youth.

Finally, on a more personal level, it must be noted that this monograph is a reflection of the spirit of collaboration that was as evident on our own team as it was among the stakeholders. Particular acknowledgment must be given to Dr. Nesbit, who as Editor, worked tirelessly and diligently to guide the writing of these papers so as to ensure that the knowledge acquired in the development of this monograph could be shared with other educators.

David Philpott, EdD

Principal Researcher

EDITOR’S COMMENT

The series of articles which comprise this monograph provide a philosophical and theoretical context for the Labrador Innu Educational Research Project which commenced February 2003. The articles reflect the thinking of the research team, members of the Faculty of Education at Memorial University of Newfoundland. In addition to contextualizing the team’s current research thrust, the monograph is intended to extend and enrich the current literature vis-à-vis First Nations issues.

It is important to acknowledge the contribution of Dr. Barbara Burnaby, an expert on First Nations education and the attendant linguistic implications. As an established authority, her submission to this monograph is valued and much appreciated.

Completion of this monograph owes much to the diligence and commitment of Juanita Hennessey and Ellen White, graduate students in the Faculty of Education at Memorial University. As research assistants their contribution has been exemplary.

On a personal note, the opportunity to serve as Editor has been an exciting growth experience.

W.C. Nesbit, PhD

Editor

TITLES OF ARTICLES AND ABSTRACTS

Supporting Learner Diversity in Aboriginal Schools

The Emergence of a Cultural Paradigm of Inclusion

David Philpott, Wayne Nesbit, Mildred Cahill, & Gary Jeffery

Abstract

This paper explores the struggle to accommodate exceptional learners in Aboriginal schools through a discussion of the cultural appropriateness of contemporary models of service delivery. Canada is witnessing dramatic population growth among Aboriginal children at a time when local band councils are assuming greater autonomy for the education of their children. Paralleling these changes is a growing concern for appropriate approaches to accommodate learner diversity, with Aboriginal schools struggling with how best to provide care to students with suspected/identified exceptionalities. Aboriginal leaders and educators are looking towards contemporary practice for direction and are discovering an on-going debate between supporters of inclusive classrooms and schools, and those who hold to more traditional special education models. This paper presents this debate and articulates emergent themes as a guide to Aboriginal leaders in developing their own model of student support services. The authors posit that while lessons from both paradigms are essential, inclusion is a core cultural value of Aboriginal culture and is already well entrenched in many Aboriginal schools. In fact, existing models of cultural-based education, while still in their infancy, offer powerful lessons on the role of community in accommodating and embracing differences in our youth. What emerges is a reciprocity of insights between Aboriginal and western leaders, where each offers the other powerful lessons on how best to accommodate learners through the establishment of a cultural paradigm of inclusion.

FROM THE ROOTS UP:

CAREER COUNSELLING IN FIRST NATIONS COMMUNITIES

Mildred Cahill, Wayne Nesbit, David Philpott, Gary Jeffery

Abstract

Career counselling in First Nations communities is a unique multilayered process which requires a high degree of sensitivity and inclusiveness. In contrast to the superimposition of established western mainstream practice, counselling aboriginal clients is a process that involves an appreciation of the many facets of diversity -- cultural values, aspirations, language, beliefs, traditions and practices. It is a process that relies heavily on the art of listening and involves strategic linkages with elders and co-facilitators from within the aboriginal community. This paper explores career counselling within the context of cultural diversity and presents pragmatic suggestions to guide the key elements of the process.

LINGUISTIC AND CULTURAL EVOLUTION IN AN UNYIELDING ENVIRONMENT

Barbara Burnaby

Abstract

The Innu of Labrador stand out among Canadian Amerindian groups in that they are likely the group most recently to come into intense, sustained contact with Euro-Canadians. They demonstrate very high maintenance of their traditional language (Innu-aimun), and their history of administrative relations with the federal and provincial governments is unique in Canada as a result of the terms of Newfoundland and Labrador’s confederation with Canada in 1949. Currently, the Innu of Sheshatshiu, Labrador, and of its sister community, Natuashish, are undergoing major changes in that (1) negotiations are underway for the Innu to gain significantly more control than they have at present over their governance, and (2) plans for the opening of a large new mine promise an unprecedented increase in opportunities for employment for the Innu and others in Labrador. These events invite an examination of the current situation in these communities (with a focus here on Sheshatshiu) for implications regarding language and literacy developments in the context of broader community circumstances. In this paper, several centuries of history of the Innu are reviewed with a focus on language, literacy, culture and relations with Euro-Canadians. Following this, contemporary linguistic, educational and economic data are outlined and a brief comparison is drawn with data from the Innus’ neighbours in Labrador, the Inuit. Discussion of this background material centres on the relevance and implications of a theoretical and practical model of indigenous language maintenance and revival for action at the present time as the administrative structure and economic opportunities of the communities change.

EDUCATIONAL ASSESSMENT OF FIRST NATIONS STUDENTS:

A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

David Philpott, Wayne Nesbit, Mildred Cahill & Gary Jeffery

Abstract

There has been significant focus placed on the development of appropriate models of educational assessment that respect both the socio-cultural background and native languages of Canada’s growing population of First Nations learners. As local band councils assume self-government and management of their own schools, the global paradigm of school reform has placed greater emphasis on accountability measures within an inclusive model of education. The authors conducted a poll of First Nations schools in which they explored current practice in assessing learner diversity. The results show that despite significant literature cautioning against the use of quantitative instruments, most schools continue to rely on standardized assessment in attempting to identify the needs of their students. The survey also identified that First Nations educators are calling for direction and support in this area. The authors offer direction with this process by reviewing the literature on culturally appropriate assessment and providing an argument for the establishment of a model of assessment that balances qualitative with quantitative approaches which results in a model of clinical teaching. Such an approach complements a culturally defined model of inclusive education where the goal of assessment is not diagnosed difference but rather an opportunity to creatively enhance learning through adapted instruction that facilitates individual success. The paper concludes with a brief review of Nunavut’s draft policy on assessment as an example of how contemporary assessment can complement culturally appropriate models of education.

FETAL ALCOHOL SYNDROME IN FIRST NATIONS COMMUNITIES

Educational Facets

Wayne Nesbit, David Philpott, Gary Jeffery & Mildred Cahill

Behold, thou shalt conceive and bear a son; and now drink no wine nor strong drink... Judges 13:7

The Bible

Abstract

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) is a critical issue in Canadian society and in Canadian schools. This is particulaly the case in First Nations communities where the reported incidence is higher than in the general population. It is an arduous journey which individuals and communities must pursue to effectively confront alcoholism and its dire effects. Hope is provided by the fact that FAS is not genetically transmitted. This paper details the nature of the syndrome and considers the role of various jurisdictions and agencies in countering this destructive entity. First Nations communities are perceived as having a major role in achieving solutions

UNDERSTANDING THE IMPORTANCE OF CULTURE IN CAREER DEVELOPMENT

Mildred Cahill, David Philpott, Wayne Nesbit, Gary Jeffery

Abstract

Career development theory has gone through dramatic changes over the past fifty years. It has evolved from a simplistic concept linked to the selection of a career -- held to be appropriate for all individuals in society -- to a multidimensional concept that embraces a holistic perspective linked to individual development across one's life-span. As well, it has moved from a "one size fits all" theoretical framework to one that acknowledges and values numerous integral facets such as culture, ethnicity, geographic preference, labor market shifts and gender. Cultural homogeneity within the population -- assumed in a number of earlier theories -- is now perceived as a myth. Specifically, career development theorists and researchers must find ways to work with practitioners to (a) translate existent theories into practice; (b) develop differential models of practice that are contextualized to meet the needs of different target groups; (c) explore partnerships and collaborative efforts to work together; (d) seek new and innovative means to understand, reach and assist client groups; and (e) work together to influence the shaping of social policies that lead to improvement in the quality of people's lives. This paper discusses the changes in career development within the context of relevance to aboriginal culture.

PERVASIVE ISSUES IN FIRST NATIONS RESEARCH – HISTORICAL

AND CONTEMPORARY DIMENSIONS

Wayne Nesbit, David Philpott, Mildred Cahill, & Gary Jeffery

Abstract

The paper describes the cultural context surrounding research in First Nations communities. It examines a series of issues which must be addressed in a sensitive and realistic manner if research in this area is to be considered informed and credible. The writers, in attempting to assist the Innu of Labrador in shaping the process of educational self-management, have identified and explored historical and contemporary literature related to the following issues: the construction of knowledge, culturally responsive instruction, ability/achievement assessment, clarity of vision concerning education, and language.