Eddie and Mildred Fagan and family from St

The Literacy Maze: Practice without Policy

William T. Fagan

Faculty of Education
Memorial University of Newfoundland

The use of the word "literacy" has mushroomed within the past twenty years. While the word was commonly used in reference to adults, the use of the term to refer to family literacy and school literacy, as well as a host of literacies (computer, mathematical, etc.) is more recent. The author's intent for this paper is to reflect on the implications of using the term "literacy" without a grounded definition, and, based on research and other input, to propose a workable definition for the term.

Attempts to Define "Literacy"

At the 1989 annual convention of the International Reading Association (the largest organization of professionals in reading/writing, literacy) a panel of five experts "known internationally for their scholarship, leadership, and many other contributions to the field of literacy education discussed the future of literacy education" (The Reading Teacher, p. 302). The first question to the panel was clear: "Define literacy". However, the answers were vague and responses digressed. One panelist's response was "Defining literacy is not an easy matter because literacy is really continuous." Another said: "Reading and writing, I believe are what we would consider as literacy, and there are all shapes and forms of literacy and ways to talk about literacy" (The Reading Teacher, p. 305). In all, a clear definition of literacy did not arise from that elite panel.

By not feeling confident, or by not taking a role in defining critical educational terms, educators are abdicating this responsibility to the realm of politics (small 'p' but may overlap with big 'P' politics). The term "literacy" has been used much longer in the adult education field than for school based education. In the last fifteen years or so, the use of this term has mushroomed to include almost any kind of knowledge. Some qualified epistemological domains that have been reported in the media or other literature include:

cultural literacy civic literacy
ecological literacy scientific literacy
musical literacy computer literacy
moral literacy religious literacy
biblical literacy visual literacy
financial literacy technological literacy
fiscal literacy automotive literacy
xerox literacy Amish literacy

In 1988, Frank Smith, noted educator and writer, authored a book which he called "Joining the Literacy Club". He was referring to children and pointed out that even before coming to school, children could be members of the literacy club. A general criterion for being a member was that the children participated in literate activities such as being read to by family members. The use of the word "literacy" has led to the development of another type of literacy club. Fundraisers, grant applicants, and advocates, as well as adult literacy instructors and teachers use the term for their particular purposes which often differ greatly from one group to the next. Fundraisers, grant applicants, or advocates can give a rousing argument why literacy should be promoted, supported and funded, yet vary considerably on the meanings underlying the word "literacy". Using the word "literacy" allows one entry to the literacy club and would include a wide array of individuals: science literacy experts, moral literacy experts, etc. While such a group would do well in promoting the notion of literacy, there would likely be considerable variation in how literacy is actually achieved.

Analysing the Literacy Construct

Literacy has become a very complex issue in today's society. There are many stakeholders with investments in literacy: politicians, policy makers, program developers, literacy providers or instructors/facilitators, community groups, researchers, learners, and funders. The analysis given below is an attempt to delineate what may be identifiable characteristics of literacy and its distinctiveness from related skills and factors.

Literacy as Issue

While the words "adult literacy" have been used for some time (Thomas, 2001), they attained common usage in Canada with the publication of the Southam News survey report (1987), a literacy survey of a sample of Canadian adults. On the basis of this report there was considerable alarm about the status of the literacy levels of adults in this country, but a forced recognition that this was an issue to contend with. In response to this document and the resulting concern about this issue, the Federal Government instituted the National Literacy Secretariat (NLS) to address adult literacy. The Secretariat initiated one national survey, Literacy Skills Used in Daily Activities (LSUDA) (Statistics Canada, 1991) and participated in an international survey, International Adult Literacy Survey (IALS) (Statistics Canada and OECD, 1995). Respondents were placed along a five point scale, ranging from Level 1 where individuals may have difficulty in abstracting simple information from print, such as the correct amount of medicine to take, to Levels 4 and 5 which require the ability to integrate several sources of information or solve more complex problems. One impact of these surveys, in addition to providing estimates of the number of people at different literacy levels was to provide a definition of adult literacy: the ability to understand and employ printed information in daily activities, at home, at work, and in the community, to achieve one's goals and to develop one's knowledge and potential. In an attempt to operationalize this definition, the surveys used three types of print information: prose, document, and quantitative.

About the same time as the Southam Survey was conducted, the word "literacy" was being used in conjunction with activities supported by families for young children. Denny Taylor (1983) is generally recognized as having coined the label "family literacy" during her doctoral study of young children participating in literacy activities in home settings. Later Mandel-Morrow, Tracey, and Maxwell (1995) documented a wide range of family literacy programs in the United States, while a similar listing for Canada was authored by Thomas and Skage (1998).

Literacy as Behaviour

Literacy is best understood as a behaviour that has educational, social, economic, and political overtones. It has characteristics of any other behaviour, characteristics that include acting, doing, thinking, performing, and effecting. Carpentry refers to the behaviour of carpenters; fishing refers to the behaviour of fisherpeople; lobbying refers to the behaviour of lobbyists; nursing refers to the behaviour of nurses, and teaching to the behaviour of teachers. In order to understand a behaviour, one must know the kinds of knowledge, skills, and strategies which underlie the behaviour. What knowledge, skills, and strategies enable one to engage in carpentry? Can anyone engage in carpentry, or lobbying, or engineering, or nursing, or teaching? Interestingly, during the Northern cod moratorium in Newfoundland and Labrador in the 1990s a decision was made to classify fisherpeople as professionals and to specify the knowledge and skills by which they would qualify for behaviours consistent with that designation.

Literacy as a behaviour has positive connotations. It is not just reading or writing. It is about interacting through print with people in a way that affects one's thinking or future course of action. This interaction may be directed at oneself in relation to others, such as when one reads a letter from an official within the educational, health, corporate, or other society sector, and decides how it affects her/his life and how to best respond. Or it could be directed at oneself personally, as when a person reads for enjoyment which could also lead to a greater understanding of people based on the content read. The technical skills of reading and writing are at a subconscious level in these behavioural instances.

Literacy is not separate from reading (or writing). People use their reading and writing skills to engage in literate behaviour. The focus is on the behaviour and its effects and not on the technical skills underlying this behaviour. Nursing is immediately associated with the behaviour of nurses; the connotations are caring, assisting, supporting, checking, etc. Of course, nursing is not possible without a strong base in technical skills. It is interesting that "doctoring" is not a behavioural counterpart to nursing (except for Granny on the Beverly Hillbillies). The focus of being seen by a medical doctor is on the doctor's use of technical skills. Somehow, it is culturally common for patients to expect doctors to prod, poke, tell you to put out your tongue, etc., make notes and then leave the examining room. The sense of behaviour is limited; the sense of knowledge and skill is great. However, if a behaviour is promoted without developing the necessary underlying skills, then the behaviour cannot be completely effective. A person may act like a great housekeeper, for example, but on finer analysis, a number of basic housekeeping skills may be missing, and the behaviour would be less than what would be expected.

Knowledge, Skills, and Strategies Underlying Literacy

To understand literacy as behaviour, we must understand the knowledge and skills underlying literacy. The bases of literacy are reading and writing. It is difficult to think of someone as independently literate who is completely lacking in the ability to read and write. Reading and writing are based on knowledge, skills, and strategies. It is generally accepted these days that reading entails using four cueing systems: pragmatic and world knowledge, semantic (words and word relationships that allow one to make sense out of what is read), syntactic (the sequence and flow of language that enable one to predict, to follow logical thought, to relate information through connectives, etc.) and graphophonic (speech sounds and letter, syllable, and corresponding sound structure of words). Writing consists of using similar cueing systems. The letters/words (spelling) into which the phonological system is encoded during writing is referred to as the graphic system.

A problem occurs when literacy behaviour is equated with reading or writing. When this happens, reading and writing are viewed only as "happening" or "occurring" and the "teaching" of reading and writing, that key reason why schools exist, gets lost. This is what happened during the whole language movement in schools. The focus was on language as behaviour (reading, talking, writing, listening). The focus was on having children utilize language at a level at which they were comfortable. But it was only those children who had a good grasp of the skills of reading, writing and oral language who were able to effectively engage in whole language behaviour. Those who came from homes without adequate skill preparation got caught up in the behaviour hype of the classroom, but there was often little learning of reading and writing skills and strategies on their part. It was the exception for teachers with a whole language philosophy to engage in direct teaching of how children could effectively use the four cueing systems in order to become readers and writers. In fact, phonics, derived from the graphophonic cueing system, was basically non-existent. In most cases, whole language led to the best students becoming better, and the poor getting poorer as they progressed through the grades.

There is no alternative to developing reading and writing knowledge, skills and strategies. For those who do not acquire these skills in incidental or informal situations, there must be direct teaching. There is no substitute for teaching. Coiners of modernistic terms have discarded the term "teaching" which they define as narrow and unchallenging. But from historical sources we know that some of the greatest teachers adopted many roles: disseminators, facilitators, supporters, challengers, models, and strategists. Teaching is something to be proud of, not something to be denied for another vacuous term. Teaching is challenging work. Teaching reading is not a matter of leading children or adults through stories and asking a number of questions. Teaching is providing the learners with strategies for becoming independent readers and writers. It is enabling learners how to effectively and efficiently use the four cueing systems of language in becoming readers and writers.

Literacy as Successful and Non-successful Events

The relationship of reading and writing to literacy may be understood as an analogy of the trees to the forest. Just as the forest is more than the sum of its parts (trees, plant and animal life, etc.), so also is literacy more than the sum of reading and writing skills. Literacy may be described as an event (Barton, Hamilton, and Ivanic, 2000). Literacy events have four components: participants, settings, artifacts or materials, and activities. These are the observational components. Underlying these may be a variety of influencing factors, such as goals, power, and cultural tradition. Whether a literacy event is successful does not depend solely on whether one can read or write, but on the interplay of factors within the literacy event, that is, the literacy behaviours. If the intent of the person who initiated the literacy event has been attained then the event is successful; if, on the other hand, the event does not lead to the attainment of the initiator's intent, then the initiator has not been able to accomplish what she/he set out to do using reading/writing as a medium.

An example of a successful literacy event concerns a two-day meeting of particular stakeholders at a hotel. Soup and sandwich lunches were served both days. One participant requested vegetarian sandwiches. On day one, these sandwiches were mixed with all the others on large trays and it was impossible to distinguish them from other sandwiches. The participant asked that for the second day, the staff put the vegetarian sandwiches on a separate tray with a sign indicating this. On the next day, on a separate tray was an arrangement of sandwiches with a label "Vegetarian". The literacy event was successfully completed.

There are many examples when literacy events are not successfully completed. One concerns a request made under the Access to Information Act in which information was denied with reference to a particular clause in the Act which gave the Government bureaucrats that power. Literacy events are not completed when a person to whom written correspondence is directed, decides not to acknowledge nor respond to that correspondence. A person employed in the field of literacy who does not respond to correspondence is a literacy contradiction, for that person does not practice what literacy is. Another example of an unsuccessful literacy event involves rules for a contest that were published in a newspaper. A person read the rules, all 672 words but could not understand two key words which indicated where the entry form would be found. These key words were "game page" but this referent was not obvious to the reader and therefore he could not complete the form because he could not find the "game page". Still another example of not being able to complete a literacy event successfully is the 2000 US presidential election when a number of people claimed that they were unable to understand the format of the ballot and therefore may have voted for a person who was not their choice.

There are examples when people choose not to participate in a literacy event because they do not feel confident in the behaviours necessary for the event to be successful, yet they have the appropriate reading and writing skills. One example concerns a family which had questions about a family member's stay in hospital. They declined to pursue the matter because they did not understand the bureaucracy, did not know where to begin, were fearful that the issue might become public and the family would be embarrassed.

Interestingly, a person without adequate reading and writing skills may be a participant by proxy in a successful literacy event. Fagan (1999) documented the literacy activities of 157 people across four generations in rural Newfoundland. Those who did not have high levels of reading or writing, particularly seniors felt they had participated successfully in a number of literacy events. They had used scribes, the most common being the provincial government elected member, followed by medical personnel (doctor or nurse), and the local clergy. This type of proxy or "surrogate" literacy event is common in the corporate world where much of the reading and writing transactions are carried out by lawyers, CEOs, public relations personnel, or secretaries. In fact, the person for whom the literacy action is taken, are akin to the young children that Frank Smith referred to who felt they were members of the literacy club. They are successful in literacy events through association and direction.

Contexts for Literacy

The terms "multiple literacies" or "multi-literacies" are frequently used in describing literacy (Barton, Hamilton & Ivanich, 2000) and include such terms as "computer literacy", "ecological literacy". etc., which suggest that each area of knowledge entails unique reading and writing skills. In most cases, the particular reading and writing skills do not differ across different fields of knowledge; what differs is the context or events in which reading and writing are used. That is, there are different goals, participants, settings, activities, power relationships, etc. What these various contexts or events entail is a particular set of circumstances in using reading and writing; they do not usually refer to the teaching of specific reading and writing skills. Being able to operate within different literacy contexts is crucial and indicates transfer and flexibility in using reading and writing skills. It is possible that a goal of a literacy project could be to provide participants with a familiarity and understanding of using reading and writing skills in different contexts/events. However, it should be very clear that the focus is on the application of reading and writing skills to particular contexts rather than on the development of the actual reading and writing skills. The relationship to these contexts is conjoint (science and literacy, ecology and literacy, computers and literacy) and not isomorphic. Failure to distinguish developing reading and writing skills versus applying them to different contexts/events often leads to confusion as to the kinds of experiences to which learners are exposed. This often occurs in the case of workplace literacy. The workplace is a context in which there are many events for the use of reading and writing. Workplace literacy, in the true sense of this term should focus on applying reading and writing skills to workplace tasks so that workers can better function in their employment. It is possible that some reading and writing skills may be taught as part of the application process. But the focus must be application to specific workplace tasks. Sometimes, programs focussing on teaching reading and/or writing skills operate in a workplace setting. That is, a program to teach reading and/or writing is housed in a workplace building; it is not the application of these skills to specific workplace tasks. This is not a literacy program per se (workplace or otherwise) but a reading and writing program that could be offered in any number of venues. Fagan (2001) has distinguished these kinds of workplace programs as FOR the workplace (when the program is designed to help workers better accomplish workplace tasks through reading and writing - a literacy program), and IN the workplace, which means that a program to teach reading and/or writing is merely housed in a workplace setting or building.

Another context in which the use of the term "literacy" leads to confusion is that of adult basic education when that label and literacy are used synonymously. Granted there is a high correlation between education and literacy, but it is not unusual to encounter high school graduates who have severe difficulty in reading and writing. A common assumption is that anyone who enrolls in an adult basic education program is considered to have enrolled in a literacy program. This supposed synonymous relationship caused some confusion during the Northern cod moratorium period in Atlantic Canada in which millions of dollars were allotted for educational programs. The general understanding as revealed through newspaper items during that time period was that the money was being used to improve adults' literacy (reading and writing skills). However, in many programs reading and writing were not taught, and when they were, it was largely via computer packaged programs that were not interrelated with literacy events where they could be applied. A study by Sheehan-Holt and Smith (2000) examined the data of the National Adult Literacy Survey in the United States of 2399 respondents who had been enrolled in adult basic education programs in order to determine if participation in basic skills programs was related to their "literacy proficiencies and reading practices" (p. 231). They concluded that enrollment in adult education programs does not necessarily lead to improved literacy skills of the type that give the learners greater expertise in extracting information from prose and quantitative documents. The outcomes of a program can be best understood in terms of its goals and content. If it is not a goal of an adult education program to develop basic reading, writing (and math) skills, then it is unlikely that the development of such skills will be a result of program involvement.

A Literate Culture

Of three major goals in the Strategic Literacy Plan of the Government of Newfoundland and Labrador (Words to Live By, 2000), the second is "promoting a culture of literacy". The document states, "Government can play a major role in fostering a culture of literacy by promoting its value in the social and economic development of our province" (p. 19). Further on in the document there are two suggested goals for creating a culture of literacy: increasing public awareness of literacy, and increasing parents' awareness of strategies for promoting their children's literacy development. In light of the above points, this view of a culture of literacy is rather limited. First, it suggests that literacy is for the benefit of government, and secondly, awareness and parent responsibility are the key factors in making this happen.

In order to develop a knowledge base on what a literate culture might look like, the author sought or obtained input from 287 individuals. These came from many walks of life: students entering their professional year in the Faculty of Education, community groups, blue collar workers, social welfare recipients, website users, conference attendees. The selection was not random but based on accessibility with an attempt to sample people from a range of backgrounds and educational levels. Below are a number of suggested characteristics of a literate culture and a scale on which to measure the literate cultural level of a geopolitical area. Comments provide additional information or insight.

Scale: 5 - 1

5: Absolute. Literacy behaviours occur to the ultimate. There are no omissions or exceptions.
4: Behaviours occur almost always. Exceptions stand out; they are not typical.
3: Behavious occur on a 50-50 basis. For every instance that a behaviour is present, one might expect one in which it is not existent.
2: There are instances of the behaviours but on a hit and miss basis, with more misses than hits. There is little expectation that the behaviours will be present to any degree.
1: Rare. It is unusual to find instances of these behaviours.

Literate Culture Behaviours:

There are high reading levels in schools. 5 4 3 2 1
Children are assessed periodically on their reading performance that provide benchmarks for levels of reading. Results of the IALS Literacy Survey (Statistics Canada, 1995) indicate that only about 16% of the graduates of schools in Newfoundland and Labrador score at the two highest levels: 4 and 5.
There is a strong professional development literacy program for teachers. 5 4 3 2 1
Becoming an effective reading and writing teacher is a lifelong professional endeavour. Professional development must be meaningful, provided by a range of professional stakeholders, coordinated, and occur in a variety of formats, one being the reading of professional journals.
There is a strong reading and writing component in undergraduate and graduate degrees for teachers/educators. 5 4 3 2 1
Language Arts courses in undergraduate programs provide for the initiation of prospective reading and writing teachers. Graduate degrees provide for the development of "master" teachers. Alberta scores at the highest levels of literacy in Canada. The University of Alberta is one of two universities in Canada which provide for the clinical study of reading at writing at a graduate level.
There is a high rate of adult reading skills. 5 4 3 2 1Those who do not leave school with adequate reading and writing skills will only attain these when they enroll in adult reading courses developed for that purpose. Results of surveys referred to earlier in this paper indicated that Newfoundland and Labrador is at the lowest levels in terms of adult reading skills.
There is a broad definition of reading development. 5 4 3 2 1
One must distinguish between "reading", "teaching reading" and "developing reading". "Reading" means engaged in the act of reading, and "teaching reading" is providing knowledge/skills/strategies to become a better reader. "Reading development" involves any and all factors that support or encourage reading. Too often, campaigns are too narrow in their focus. Prizes are given for the number of books read, which leads to a scramble to "get through" as many books as possible in the shortest amount time. This kind of focus would certainly discourage a child from reading Harry Potter books. It also prevents such actions as reading to or with others, discussing books, extending books through drama, art, etc. all of which encourage and support the development of reading.
Learning is approached as thinking, analysing, and constructing, rather than as memorization and transmission. 5 4 3 2 1
Decades ago schools were characterized by memorization and transmission as the common modes of learning. Results on the Council for Higher Education (CHE) Exams were a verification of the results of these teaching styles. Unfortunately, much of this kind of learning still occurs, in schools, universities, and other post-secondary, and adult education programs.
Parents take a prominent role in immersing their young children into literacy activities. 5 4 3 2 1
Parents are their children's first teachers. Parents must be recognized for this role and must be provided the necessary expertise and resources to fulfill it. Parents are by and large dedicated to the educational progress of their children. Once government or schools begin to take this role away from parents, there is a large gap in promoting a literate culture.
There is parental involvement in schools. 5 4 3 2 1
If parental involvement in the literacy development of their young children is fostered, then it follows naturally that parents will want to follow the progress of their children at school age. But there must be meaningful roles for parents in schools. Duplicating worksheets and doing secretarial tasks should be minimal.
Several time during the week, families share stories, events in their lives, etc. 5 4 3 2 1
There is an old saying, "You don't know what you've got 'till it's gone" which typifies the situation with regard to family talk time. In days gone by, without television and the pressure to work two jobs, families usually sat around the supper table and talked and shared events of the day. There must still be times during the week when this kind of talk and sharing happens in families.
Public libraries are accessible to all people. 5 4 3 2 1
Every school-based community should have a public library. There are significant gaps in Newfoundland and Labrador. There is not a single public library in one whole region (St. Mary's Bay) for example. Not only must there be a public library for every school-based community, the hours when these libraries are open must be generous and flexible to meet the needs of the patrons.
There are viable bookstores in all large towns and cities. 5 4 3 2 1
When literacy is valued, bookstores are essential. Every large town and city should be able to support bookstores where a range of children's and adults' books are available. Books should be encouraged as presents for different occasions. This was a point made my renowned author, Bernice Morgan, at a talk to the St. John's Rotary in April, 2001. (The Telegram, April 24, 2001).
Youth engage more in reading than in watching TV or playing computer games. 5 4 3 2 1
TV and video games have usurped time that normally could be spent reading. People, including youth, prioritize what they engage in. If youth are imbued with the value and enjoyment of reading in school, then they will make time for reading, in spite of the lure of TV and video games.
Internet is used frequently and for accessing print information. 5 4 3 2 1
Computer time is not all empty time when it comes to reading. The internet is a valuable source of print information on all topics. This use of the internet for this purpose should be encouraged.
People keep informed of local and world events, particularly through the print media and radio. 5 4 3 2 1
Knowledge is the backbone of literacy. In order to discuss, read, and write intelligently about local and world affairs, people must be familiar with events. Print media and radio, focussing on the medium of language, provide such information, and insight. However, all information must be approached from a critical rather than an accepting perspective.
People, know and respect history and tradition. 5 4 3 2 1
In a recent letter to the editor of the Gazette (Memorial University, December 13, 2001), Frank Cluett, Retired Provost of Queen's College states, "History is exhibit A of the human failure to know how to live, to seek the common good, honesty, truth and beauty. These ideals have to be taught; they are not, at least in our time, acquired by some process of natural absorption." Without a sense of history, Cluett maintains there is likely to be a pragmatic, a band-aid or quick-fix solution to global (or even local issues). History is knowledge, the foundation of literacy. When schools are named after rivers, and trees, rather than after great role-models and statespeople one wonders if there is more interest in fish, leaves, and nuts, than in fostering knowledge of the past and of educators whom the children might emulate.
There are many letters to the editors, challenging policy, 5 4 3 2 1action, etc.
Letters to the editor are a mirror of the activity of the public in knowing and addressing concerns, and public matters. The more literacy active the public, the more letters to the editor will be generated. However, the quality of the letters in terms of addressing issues with a knowledge of facts reflects the level of literate culture.
The print media is prominent in addressing literacy 5 4 3 2 1 issues.
Literacy should be news. This should cover a wide range, from actual literacy programs and experiences, to literacy surveys and policy, to awards and literacy events.
Background experience and expertise in the area of literacy 5 4 3 2 1 are necessary for people who take leadership positions in literacy.
There is a myth that anyone who can read can teach reading. Yet, by the same reasoning, we would hardly accept that anyone who speaks can provide speech therapy, or anyone who walks can deal with problems of the feet. Experts in the area of reading have a difficult time in having the stakeholders in literacy recognize the required knowledge and skills for expertise. The International Reading Association, the largest body in the world of reading professionals, has clearly set down standards for people engaging in different positions involving reading responsibility. These must be recognized in hiring people for reading positions.
Research and expertise form the basis for literacy decisions. 5 4 3 2 1
Literacy policy should only be formulated on the basis of research and expertise. Literacy programs should be developed on a similar basis. Expertise should not be self-acclaimed but should be based on the International Reading Association Standards. Pertinent data for policy or practice should be widely researched and research should be critically evaluated to determine its validity and reliability.
There is freedom from cell phones in places of relaxation 5 4 3 2 1 and socialization, such as restaurants, concerts.
Literacy involves a respect for language and the appropriate use of language. In certain locales, such as restaurants, concerts, a particular kind of language is expected and respected. Those who use cell phones show little regard for these language events but superimpose their business and personal lives on them.
Drivers follow the rules of the road and posted signs.
Drivers engage in literacy practices that involve the safety of the public. Ensuring safety is based on drivers engaging in literacy practices of knowing the rules of the road and following posted signs.
The Provincial Government invests sufficient funds 5 4 3 2 1 in sound literacy policy and effective practice.
Literacy cannot be developed on the backs of volunteers. Certainly, volunteers do and can play a key role in the development of reading and writing skills. There must be sufficient funding for the implementation of programs which offer children and adults effective reading and writing programs based on sound literacy policy and research.
There is a Government in power that encourages and 5 4 3 2 1 accepts opinion, constructive input, proposed action.
A secretive, closed, or threatened government constitutes an interference in developing a literate culture. A government that tries to defend the indefensible, or addresses key issues via language circles only hinders the formation of a literate culture. Governments are highly visible by their actions. They will foster a literate culture by entertaining opinion and constructive input. They will admit to poorly thought through policy or practice, investigate challenges to existing policy or practice, and welcome the voice of the public via language in furthering literacy development.
In discussion and debate, issues and not people nor 5 4 3 2 1 personalities are addressed.
Focus is an important characteristic of a literacy event. A discussion of an issue must focus on that issue and not on peripheral matters, particularly the people or personalities involved. A key venue for observing this kind of behaviour is within legislature questioning and debate. Rather than directly responding to a question, an elected official may resort to grandstanding, flippant remarks or person attack.
Decisions about people are made based on first hand 5 4 3 2 1 knowledge and not on hearsay.
There is an old expression that a person should only believe half of what one sees and nothing of what one hears. Yet people who "profess" to be literate may formulate opinion, make decisions, and base judgments on what they hear. If such people were asked to document what they know firsthand of the person/situation, they would be able to list nothing. Such kind of behavior, the opposite of being literate, is unfortunately, the basis of prejudice and bigotry.
People distinguish between "what is" and "what might be" 5 4 3 2 1
We must distinguish between what others say or write, what we think they said or wrote, and what we wished they said or wrote. Confusing "what is" with what we think there might be, is often due to people being emotionally charged about an issue so that their feelings provide an interpretation of a case rather than understanding the case as presented. Being literate means understanding with the "mind" rather than with the "liver". Confusion between what is and what may be, may also be due to a superficial understanding of a situation. For example, a person announced that "as everyone knows, CAPITAL LETTERS in an e-mail message mean that the writer is shouting at you." When my friends and I use capital letters in an e-mail, they are used to mark emphasis, or when a document is being circulated for input/review, they set off the edits. It is common in group discussions for a person to say, "I hear (another person) saying ___", or "What (another person) means is ___". This person is trying to match what is with interpretation or what might be, and is one strategy that people use to distinguish these when they are not clear.
There is freedom from fear in raising opinion, different 5 4 3 2 1 viewpoints, etc.
While we maintain that we have freedom of speech in Canada, the perception of speakers is often otherwise. Certainly, a person is legally free to comment on public matters, to offer opinion. But people often believe that if they do, this freedom comes with a price. People feel that if they adversely comment on matters affecting an employer or authority, they may suffer the consequences, whether of losing a promotion, a job, a bonus, a contract, a grant, etc.
There is literacy leadership in government, labour, 5 4 3 2 1 business, and education sectors, which models and promotes literacy.
Literacy is everybody's business. All facets of society have an obligation to display, support, and promote literacy. This is not just in terms of providing funds. Just as significant is the modelling of literacy by the leaders of the various sectors of society. This may mean engaging in a literacy event initiated by a member of the public. A common such event is when a person corresponds in writing regarding a concern. A true literacy leader, regardless of the sector, will not ignore that letter and consign it to the wastebasket but will provide or have a response provided for the initiator. Leaders who deny a person the courtesy of a response, are, in fact, promoting a non-literate culture. It is equally important that recognized members of society model literacy. How often are sports figures or politicians recognized for literacy achievements? Within school systems, there are often very few male role models for boys in the primary/elementary grades, yet boys tend to perform less well than girls in reading and writing.
The impact of different sectors in promoting literacy 5 4 3 2 1 is marked by partnerships.
All members of society must work together in supporting and promoting literacy. Literacy needs, whether space for an adult literacy program, or resources for schools should be a concern of all society sectors. There is often considerable empty space (particularly in the evenings) and resources that could easily be made available for providing reading and writing programs for adults and children. There must also be partnerships within the literacy field. Unfortunately, it is often the bickering, pettiness, or jealousy among literacy groups or organizations which get in the way of literacy, rather than promoting it. Some literacy stakeholders often have difficulty seeing the larger picture, that of society and culture, above their own image, policies, and programs.
People take control of print/language that affects their 5 4 3 2 1 lives.
A final characteristic of a literate culture is that people take control of print/language that affects their lives. This, is perhaps, a culmination of many of the points made above. People who have developed the ability to think, analyse, construct, challenge, focus on issues, base decision on research and first hand knowledge, and are free from fear in enacting these abilities, control the print/language that affects their lives.

A Literate Culture or Not?

After the above 30 characteristics of a literate society were developed, they were submitted to twelve experts who were asked to indicate to what degree these should be present to affirm a literate society, that is, what percent or what overall rating would be the minimum to declare a literate society. The overall general consensus was that there should be a rating of at least 5 on the scale for Characteristics 1 and 4, plus a minimum rating of 4 for another 22, with the rating of each of the remaining 6 being at least 3 on the scale.

Conclusion

The word "literacy" has generated a maze in the very promotion of the construct it represents. Statements on the quest for a literate culture are often grandiose and pseudo-policy based without practice. In order to make such statements meaningful, it is first of all necessary to try and understand the meanings underlying the word "literacy" and how these relate to but are different from reading and writing, and particularly the teaching of reading and writing. To declare a literacy utopia, one must know when we have arrived. For that reason it is necessary to define characteristics or parameters of such an existence. This paper has attempted to do both. It should be a start in providing a meaningful referent for statements or pronouncements by relating them to the test of reality.

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William T. Fagan is a professor emeritus, University of Alberta, and an adjunct professor, Memorial University.