Transformational Leadership
A Brief Overview
&
Guidelines for Implementation
Prepared By: Jim Cashin
Patti Crewe
Jason Desai
Lisa Desrosiers
Janet Prince
Gabrielle Shallow
Stephen Slaney
Prepared For: Dr. Dave
Dibbon
Education 4361
Date: December 11,
2000
Table of Contents
Introduction ................................................................................................2
Types of Leadership.....................................................................................2
The Traditional School Leadership Model....................................................7
Trends Affecting the Roles of Teachers.......................................................12
Transformational Leadership.......................................................................17
The New Role of the Teacher......................................................................21
The New Role of the Principal.....................................................................27
Recommendations.......................................................................................33
Conclusion..................................................................................................35
Bibliography................................................................................................36
Introduction
Transformational leadership is a process in which the leaders
take actions to try to increase the awareness of what is right and important.
As well, it is a process to raise motivational maturity and to move
beyond the persons' own self-interests for the good of the school or society.
These type of leaders provide others with a sense of purpose that
goes beyond a simple exchange of rewards for effort provided.
The transformational leaders, in many different and unique ways,
are proactive. These leaders attempt to optimize not just performance,
but development as well. Development encompasses such things as the maturation
of ability, motivation, attitudes, and values. They convince others to
strive for a higher level of achievement as well as higher levels of moral
and ethical standards. Through the development of their teachers, they
optimize the development of their school as well. High performing teachers
build high performing organizations. It was the goal of this study
to examine the system as it is, and why it isn’t working, as well as transformational
leadership and how it can change the roles of teachers and administrators.
This manual will attempt to offer realistic strategies for implementing
this new leadership model, and will argue why a transformational system
will help to improve the educational community as a whole.
Types of Leadership
Leadership can be defined as the trait, or traits, that allows one
to lead or direct others toward a definite result, goal, or objective.
What makes a leader? What are the styles, or modes of operation, that allows
one person to be an effective leader while others are not? Clearly not
all leaders have the same methods of convincing others to follow them.
The army general and the social democrat would not employ the same tactics
in having others follow. The present day Pope and sixteenth century Machiavelli
would have divergent views as to the proper style of leadership. Principals
of different schools may also have contradictory views as to the best method
of leadership. Discussed in this paper are: command leadership, manipulative
leadership, paternalistic leadership, contingency based leadership, and
values based leadership. Not all traits of one style of leadership are
necessarily unique to that style. There is a certain amount of crossover
in traits, yet there are definite differences that discriminate one style
of leadership from the other.
Command leadership refers to a style of leadership that demands
that followers, or subjects, automatically obey the orders that they have
been given. This style of leadership is used by dictators, military officers,
and police officers in some situations. This type of leadership requires
that people accept the authority of the individual or controlling group.
Their right to lead has to be founded in law or their ability to force
their will upon their followers. Soldiers or sailors obey the orders of
their commanding officer, not because they are swayed by his or her persuasive
arguments, not because of their charismatic charm, not because they are
necessarily convinced of the moral superiority of the path being dictated
to them, but because they are required by military law to obey the orders.
Of course a good military officer will inspire her or his troops and will
lead them because the soldier accepts the sound judgement of his or her
decisions. Even with military law on their side, an officer knows that
mutiny may occur if their authority is abused. This style of leadership
is not as common as it used to be in Western society as people are not
as likely to accept being dominated in this manner.(Leading Change P. 5)
Niccolo Machiavelli, a sixteenth century Italian diplomat, advocated
in his book, The Prince, that princes should learn how to be deceitful
and use whatever information is at hand, or whatever means is available,
to achieve their goals. The means and steps taken would be dictated by
what was expedient.(Ibid. 5) This attitude takes leadership beyond simple
expedience and pragmatism to outright manipulation of the followers. Most,
if not all, leaders try to influence their followers and convince them
to follow a particular path. The leader will chose to chart a course that
allows her or him to achieve their desired goals within what is politically
pragmatic. A manipulative leader will use deceitful methods to achieve
their goals. Richard Nixon, former president of the United States, demonstrated
aspects of a manipulative leader when he directed his henchmen to commit
crimes, such as burglary, that would give him information that would solidify
his position of power and influence. His famous statement, “I am not a
crook,” was proven to be false and his presidency came to an abrupt halt
when he was impeached. History shows that manipulative leadership, as advocated
by Machiavelli, “often succeeds in the short term [ but ] almost always
fails ultimately because expediency cannot be concealed forever.”
(Ibid. 5)
Paternalistic leaders also try to manipulate their followers
but, unlike Machiavellian manipulators, they act altruistically for the
benefit of their followers. (Ibid 6) The underlying assumption with this
style of leadership is that the leader knows what is best for his or her
followers. Ergo, the followers are not capable or competent to make their
own decisions on the
pertinent topic. An example of this style of leadership is exemplified
by the head of the Roman Catholic Church, the Pope. The Pontiff is assumed
to be infallible in matters relating to spiritual issues. Catholics the
world over are expected to submit to the directives of the Church on these
issues. Often, paternalistic styles of leadership are rejected by the followers.
Despite the trend, this has not been the case with the Catholic Church.
Contingency leadership has at its core that effective leaders
do whatever the circumstances require.(Ibid 7) It is different from manipulative
leadership in that the manipulative leader has greed or personal gain as
a driving force or a major motivation. This situational style of leadership,
while on the surface appearing logical and prudent, has a serious drawback
for a leader. Under normal circumstances a leader can be considerate of
their followers wishes. When the situation demands this same leader may
take a hardline stance with his or her followers. The result is that the
normal trust has been broken and it is difficult for the leader be seen
in the same light as previous. An example might be a business leader who
under normal circumstances is seen as a fair and effective boss. When labour
difficulties arise the leader may deem that a tough stance is necessary
for the good of the company. Union members may see this as a personal attack
upon their goals of making a good living. Their trust in the boss has been
destroyed. The boss will have a more difficult time leading people because
his motives will always be questioned by some members of his or her staff.
One of the dangers of this style of leadership is that upon assuming leadership
roles reasonable men and women become tyrannical.(Ibid. 8) The leader does
not have a specific principal that acts as a guiding light in charting
a course for her or his followers. Therefore, they drift from idea to idea
and from plan to plan.
An alternate to contingency based leadership is values-based
leadership. Values-based leaders “listen to their followers because they
respect them and because they honestly believe that the welfare of followers
is the end of leadership (and not that followers are the means to the leader’s
goals).” (Ibid. 9) The values-based leader is always cognizant of the needs
and desires of his or her followers. This is not to suggest that the values-based
leader submits to the every whim and desire of the followers. Within provincial
politics, the electorate may desire to have a state of the art hospital
in every community in the province. The good leader would not submit to
pressure of this sort because she or he knows that it is in the best interest
of the followers that they not build so many hospitals. If the leader acquiesced
to these demands the province would soon see their finances in a state
of bankruptcy. However the values-based leader would look at the bigger
picture and see that what the followers desired was good health care that
was accessible to all. The result would be regional hospitals that all
followers could access and the province afford. The values-based leader
operates by some moral principal and has a vision of what his or her followers
want and need. “In the end, the leader’s vision becomes [the followers]
vision because it is built on the foundation of their needs and aspirations.”
(Ibid. 10) A leader who convinces their followers to work toward some goal
has caused people or ideas to change. This type of leadership “does not
depend on circumstances: it depends on the attitudes, values, and actions
of leaders.”(Ibid. 11) The values-based leader does not lead in isolation
but inspires others to lead also. The leader then becomes a leader of leaders.
In this situation the leader is no longer the only driving force, but has
inspired others to work toward the common goal and participate in the transformation
of their society, business environment or group. Values-based leadership
does not have room for the cynicism of manipulative or contingency based
leadership, it is based on moral principles that respect the followers
vision and wishes as well as those of the leader. People are resistant
to change because it disrupts their normal patterns in life. The values-based
leader will “overcome this chronic and inevitable pattern of resistance
in only one way: by building an alternative system of belief and allowing
others to adopt it as their own. That is the essence of values-based leadership.”(Ibid.
14)
Leadership styles can be as multifaceted as can the personalities
of the leaders. It is difficult to place a leader neatly in one box and
categorically state that they are a particular type of leader. On occasion
even Hitler listened to his followers advice yet it would be difficult
to think of him as anything but a command leader. It would be more precise
to say that leaders are defined by the style of leadership that they most
often, or most consistently, exhibit.
The Traditional School Leadership Model
Fifty years ago, most people would have looked ahead to the year
2000 and envisioned a world with talking computers, cars that fly through
the sky, and clothing that resembles what astronauts wear. Now that
we’ve begun the new millennium, we see that although many things have changed,
many things have also remained the same. The day-to-day life inside
most of our schools, for instance, has changed very little. The traditional
roles of teachers and administrators, and the gap between the two are still
practiced and maintained in many schools. This section will describe
these traditional roles, and will attempt to identify some of the problems
with these “traditions”.
Traditionally, a teacher’s day centers around their classroom,
one room, a chalkboard, one big desk, and between twenty and forty smaller
desks. Most schools have a few TV/VCR units that can be signed out
when necessary, and some teachers make use of overhead projectors.
During the day, the teacher meets with several groups of students.
In most cases, the teacher lectures or works through examples while the
students take notes. The occasional hand is raised, and a question
is asked or answered (Marsh).
Outside class time, teachers generally spend their time doing
paperwork, attendance reports, marking, photocopying, etc. Quite
often, teachers have very little contact with other adults, maybe at lunch
time if they aren’t on cafeteria duty. Communication with the administrators
is frequently restricted to an annual performance evaluation, or discussions
of discipline problems. As is the nature of the job, teachers spend
most of their time with students or by themselves. They are left
to interpret their classroom according to the merits of their own impressions
without reference to or input from any outside sources (Marsh).
Teachers are handed a new curriculum every few years, given a
half-day inservice on it’s implementation, and sent on their ways.
Very often, teachers do not feel that they are given adequate training
to work effectively with new programs. Curriculum development is
done by an outside source, and the opinions of teachers are not sought
or offered. Teachers are told which books students should read, and
in what order they should learn things. These decisions are handed
down from above. Teachers are then left to make their own decisions
about methodology in isolation. It is rare even for teachers teaching
the same course to consult each other on their approach (Marsh).
The type of leadership that traditionally exists in schools is
often referred to as “command” or “dominance” leadership. In essence,
one person leads, the others follow. One person makes the major decisions
that affect the entire group. Policy is made by one person and handed
down. Input may be asked for or given, but the decision itself is
left up to one individual (Ryan, 1999). In the case of schools, this
one person is almost always the principal.
In the traditional school, the principal rules with an iron hand
and the organizational structure is based on rules, duty, and consequences.
Curriculum is almost always determined and defined by an outside source,
usually a school board or Department of Education. The principal
is often responsible for organizing the curriculum, and for directing it’s
implementation. The principal oversees all the teachers, and is the
person to whom they all answer. Principals are responsible for running
the school as a whole. They organize finances, impose budgets, and
they manage student discipline problems. They plan the school’s schedule,
allocate the resources, and they manage all other aspects of administration.
The U.S. Department of Education emphasizes the need for schools
to work in a way that honors the experience and contribution of all its
members. This structure does not however, exist in most schools.
The relationship between teachers and administrators is often quite adversarial.
The command mode of leadership requires teachers to be obedient and subservient
to their principals. Aside from evaluations and discussions of discipline,
teachers find that their contact with the administration often stems from
a failure on their part to comply. This type of system tends to place
the importance on obedience. True competence as a teacher is often
not evaluated at all. Teachers may spend their spare time planning
new and creative lessons, or they may not bother and simply do the bare
minimum. The truth is, that taking the time to create fascinating
lessons, results in no recognition, while the failure to do so, results
in no criticism (Marsh).
Ideally, we would like schools to be well run and productive
organizations. Schools should be focused on the students, and facilitate
learning. Teachers and administrators should work together, collaboratively
and productively, to establish and implement policy. Unfortunately,
the traditional model of leadership in schools simply does not accomplish
this goal. The traditional model has administrators making policy
in isolation from teachers, and teachers implementing policy without reference
or input from their colleagues or from outside sources. When administrators
establish a hierarchical form of authority, as they do in the traditional
model, they are communicating to the teachers the assumption that they
are subordinates who do not share the same goals as the administration,
and that they must be monitored in order to force them to be productive.
This structure tells teachers that their knowledge is not valuable, and
that their input would not be an asset.
This attitude is further communicated in the form of teacher
inservices. Most inservices take the form of a lecture given by a
so-called “expert”, who is brought in from outside, and is usually not
a classroom teacher. This simply isn’t a logical approach.
Teachers are the ones responsible for implementing policy. They are
well equipped by their experience to spot potential problems in curriculum
development. They are the only ones exposed to the classroom on a
regular basis, and yet, their consultation is not sought when making policy.
Teachers possess a wealth of knowledge of the dynamics of the classroom,
and they have a feel for what will work and what will not. Unfortunately,
teachers are not invited to take part in decision making, and they fail
to step forward and ask to be included because they work in a system that,
essentially, tells them they don’t know anything (Marsh).
We are losing teachers. The current situation in schools
is such that it is nearly impossible for the best and most dedicated of
our teachers to maintain their vision and their ideals in the face of reality.
A survey confirms that not more than fifty percent of women and only thirty
percent of men are still teaching six years after they begin ( Farber,
1991). There is a massive amount of literature on school reform and
restructuring, and most of it focuses on leadership as being the key to
change. The current system of leadership in schools is not working.
Teachers are one of our most valuable resources as a society, and yet,
with every move we make, we are telling them that the knowledge they hold
is not valuable and that their input is not required, even on matters in
which they could be considered experts.
In 1993 a forum was called for teachers to discuss education
reform. The general consensus was that teachers did not feel that
they were taken seriously. By dismissing the expertise and experience
of teachers, reformers are alienating the only members of the educational
community who can really make a difference in the lives of the students
(Marsh).
Typically, policy makers give themselves thrice the time to make
policy than they give teachers to implement it, lacking the realization
that change does not occur immediately. This slowness to make change
is often misinterpreted by administrators as a resistance to change on
the part of the teachers. Teachers tend to react with skepticism
and protest when confronted by administrative dictates of change, but this
is not necessarily a resistance to the change itself. Research shows
that teachers are much more responsive to reform when they feel that they
are participating in decision making, and that their input is valued (Marsh).
It is a simple fact that people work more effectively and are
happier in their work when they feel valued and respected. Teachers
are valuable resources as well as wealths of useful knowledge. The
structure that currently exists in schools is failing to tap into this
knowledge. Teachers are, perhaps, the best judges of what will and
what will not work in the classroom environment, and their input should
be sought after. As a society and as an educational community, we
have to start talking about reforms, not just of curriculum and approach
to students, but also reforms of how teachers are viewed and valued by
the public. We need to move towards a system where all our resources
are being used to their full advantage, a system where teachers are respected
participants, not just subordinates.
Trends Affecting the Roles of Teachers
When we think of trends, we think of things such as fashion, technology
and social trends. These trends are all around us and are a part
of our lives. We see them on television, hear about them on the radio
and we even buy the new trendy item when they arrive on store shelves.
We are always fascinated and curious as to what this new trend is and we
are drawn towards them. Following the latest trends is the thing
to do today and in order to keep up with and be a part of the rest of society
we must be aware of the changes. Once we are aware of these changes
we must become a part of this new trend in order to be on the same page
as everyone else.
This kind of a situation applies to just about everything and
everyone in the world today. Companies that use computers must constantly
monitor the latest technology being introduced to the market in order to
remain competitive with rival companies. Clothing companies must
keep the shelves stacked with clothes that are in demand if they want to
stay open. Car companies must be aware of what the latest demand
is in vehicles in order for their employees to keep their jobs. As
these examples suggest, the key to success is to follow and keep pace with
the trends that are constantly occurring.
The situation is no different in the school setting either.
Schools and their staff must constantly be aware of the ever changing world
trends in order for their students to be able to face society successfully.
Over the past decade the role of the teacher has widened and
deepened. The teachers are expected to make a difference in the lives
of students while becoming experts in managing change. It is still
undetermined how far these changes will go, but there is no doubt that
radical changes in the teaching profession is needed in order for the students
to benefit from the ever changing world (Fullan, 1996).
One of the trends that teachers in today’s classroom face include
classrooms with a multicultural setting. More and more we see the
classroom filled with a mixture of cultures. The teacher must become
aware of this and adjust accordingly. When planning their lessons,
the teacher must remember to make reference to the minority cultures in
his or her particular class. Referring to the majority culture only
presents a disadvantage to everyone in the class. Not only do the
minority cultures feel left out of the conversation and material in the
class, but the majority culture is not given the opportunity to learn about
other cultures in the world. As well, when group projects are scheduled,
teachers can ensure that there is a good mixture of cultures in each group.
This will give all the students a chance to work together in a multicultural
setting. Today people are moving to all parts of the globe
in order to find occupations. They will be much better prepared mentally
for a job in Japan if they had the opportunity to learn about and work
with someone familiar with the Japanese culture in school.
Teachers must also be aware of gender and sexual issues in the
classroom and in the school in general. The teacher must protect
himself or herself more carefully based on issues of gender and sexuality.
For instance, a male teacher must be very cautious when around a female
student, especially if they are alone. A male teacher should
never be in this situation because many rumours or court cases can arise
from such an incident. Furthermore, a female teacher must ensure
that she treats the males in her classroom with the same respect she shows
her female students or vise versa. These are real issues that
teachers do find themselves in and if they do not want to risk losing their
job, or worse, they must avoid the above situations.
Another trend teachers face is the reality that parents are becoming
more involved in the schools. More and more parents are speaking
out about the way their children are being taught and what their children
are being taught in schools. Parents are taking on a more active
role and teachers must be on their toes at all times in order to satisfy
these parents.
Furthermore, there used to be a time when teachers could discipline
the children in the classroom and the children would pray that their parents
do not find out about it because the teacher was always right. Parents
did not question the actions of the teacher. Unfortunately this does
not occur any longer. Nowadays the parents are very protective of
their children and if the teacher has to discipline a student, the teacher
can be sure that they will hear from the parents of the child demanding
an explanation for little Billy’s detention.
Another trend facing teachers is the ever changing and increasing
information and communication technology. Since computers have moved
into the classrooms, technology has exploded as an educational issue.
Just like reading and writing, the ability to use a computer is becoming
a prerequisite for student success, as well as a life skill. Computers
have reached most schools in Canada and in 1995, Newfoundland became the
first province with full internet access. Despite the fact that most
schools are faced with reductions in public education budgets, schools
are working hard to expand the role of technology in the curriculum (website-ccsd....).
What this means for teachers is that they must learn how to use
and become familiar with computer technology if they expect to teach it
to their students. As well, it brings to the classroom a wide variety
of opportunity. Students can learn so much from computers and it
is up to the teacher to decide what information the students should be
learning. The teacher must also be aware of what to stay away from
because the internet also has a harmful downside. It is so easy for
students to get access to pornography sites or sites related to hate crimes,
and so on. It can be very dangerous and it is the responsibility
of the teacher to monitor what the student is searching for on the computer.
New learning concepts is also an issue for teachers. The
traditional way of learning is no longer accepted in today’s society.
This traditional way of learning had students listen to the teacher and
answer questions that were given to them. They would sit in rows
and do individual seat work for the day. It was a boring set-up and
the majority of learning relied on memorization. Today, learning
takes on a more interactive approach. The classrooms are not always
arranged in rows, but take on the shape of circles. Students work
together in groups where they discuss and exchange ideas amongst one another.
As well, films are used to help students understand topics discussed in
class on a more appealing scale. Bringing in guest speakers is another
affective method to help get the point across to students. When students
see that the material they are studying has some use in the outside world,
they seem to enjoy learning it more. This can also be accomplished
by going on field trips. Students can apply what they have learned
to a real situation. For example, if student are learning about how
fish are processed, take them to a processing facility so they can see
first hand how it is accomplished. This is a much more interesting
and easier way for students to learn.
Teachers must prepare well in advance for these types of activities
to take place. It takes a lot of time and effort for teachers to
have this type of a setting. It requires the teacher to become very
creative and in control of the situation. However, the results are
very rewarding, for both students and teachers. When students are
able to apply information, you know you have done a worthwhile job.
Unfortunately, violence is something teachers come to expect
in the run of a school day. More and more school kids are fighting
on school property and even in the classroom in front of the teacher.
Of course the teacher cannot ignore this kind of a confrontation.
It is a serious matter that must be dealt with accordingly in order to
prevent the situation from escalating any further.
Sometimes however, the situation does escalate further, putting
the whole school population in danger. In the past few years, students
and teachers being killed by fellow classmates at school is not that uncommon.
This is a reality that teachers and students must keep in the back of their
minds while in school. For example, last week in Calgary a student
was stabbed to death by a friend on school property over a small amount
money. This should not be happening yet we hear about this and other
horror stories involving school violence in the news too often. The
incident at Columbine High School in Colorado is real and still on the
minds of many people around the world especially teachers, students, and
parents of students. It can happen anywhere and teachers have to
keep a closer eye on their students in a way they never had to before.
Any strange behaviour should be reported immediately for it could mean
the difference between life and death. Hopefully, this kind of a
trend will not stay long. However, with the recent incident in Calgary
this does not seem to be the case thus preventative measures is something
schools must look into.
Trends are constantly changing, and although they may be difficult
to keep up on it is essential in order to stay ahead. The success
of the students, teachers, and school depends on it.
Transformational Leadership
In 1978, James McGregor Burns first proposed the
idea of Transformational leadership that was later expanded by Bernard
Bass (Liontois, 1992). Although they based their work on business
executives, army officers and political leaders, the principles of transformational
leadership can be extended to schools (Liontois, 1992).
One of the first instances of transformational
leadership has been documented in businesses and has become known as the
stakeholder theory. There has been a gradual shift away from the
type A business, where control is highly centralized and differences in
worker status is maintained, to the type Z business that is based on facilitated
(decentralized) power which is manifested through other people rather than
over other people (Leithwood, 1992). The stakeholder theory views
business firms as being composed of various constituencies (workers, managers,
customers, suppliers, and so forth), all of whom have a legitimate strategic
and moral stake in the organization but may have different values, beliefs
and so forth. Therefore, in order to achieve an organization that will
be beneficial to every shareholder, the people must come together and cooperate
on the basis of values, interests and social choice (Bass and Steidlmeier,
1998). In schools, it deals with finding a way to become successful
in collaboratively defining the essential purpose of teaching and learning
and then empowering the entire school community to become energized and
focused (Liontos, 1992).
Leithwood (1992) defines transformational
leadership as a leadership that facilitates the redefinition of a people’s
mission and vision, a renewal of their commitment and the restructuring
of their systems for goal accomplishment (p. 9). It is a relationship
of mutual stimulation and elevation that converts followers into leaders
and may convert leaders into moral agents (Brubacher et al., 1994).
Hence, transformational leadership must be grounded in moral foundations
(Bass and Steidlmeier, 1998).
Transformational leadership contains four
components: idealized influence or charisma, inspirational motivation,
intellectual stimulation, and individualized consideration (Bass and Steidlmeier,
1998). Bass and Steidlmeier (1998) state: “ if the leadership is
transformational ,its charisma
or idealized influence is envisioning,
confident, and sets high
standards for emulation. Its inspirational motivation
provides followers with
challenges and meaning for engaging in shared
goals and undertakings.
Its intellectual stimulation helps followers to
question assumptions and to generate
more creative solutions to problem.
Its individualized consideration
treats each follower as an individual and
provides coaching, mentoring and
growth opportunities”(p.3).
Authentic transformational leadership then, is characterized by high
moral and ethical standards in each of these four domains.
Authentic transformational leaders are required
to promote within their organizations ethical policies, procedures and
processes. They need to be committed to a clearly stated, continually
enforced code of ethical conduct and they should foster an organizational
culture with high ethical standards to eventuate in the internalization
in all the organization’s members of shared moral standards (Bass and Steidlmeier,
1998). The inspirational appeals of the authentic transformational
leader tend to focus on the best in people. Leaders are genuinely
concerned about the good that can be achieved for their group and they
openly bring about changes in the followers’ values by the merit and relevancy
of their ideas and mission to their followers’ ultimate belief and satisfaction
(Bass and Steidlmeier,1998). Bass and Steidlmeier (1998) conclude
that leaders are authentically transformational when they increase awareness
of what is deemed to be right, good and important, when they help to elevate
followers’ needs for achievement and self- actualization, when they foster
higher moral maturity in their followers, and when they move followers
to go beyond their self-interests for the good of their group (p.6).
Despite the fact that transformational leadership
is regarded, by most, as a leadership that involves moral maturity and
moral uplifting of followers, its ethics have been questioned. Its
critics have suggested five arguments against its ethicalness. First
of all, they believe that because transformational leadership uses impression
management, it lends itself to amoral ‘puffery’. Secondly, they consider
it as antagonistic to organizational learning and development that involves
shared leadership, equality, consensus and decision-making. Thirdly, they
believe that it encourages followers to go beyond their own self-interests
for the good of the organization, and therefore, engage them irrationally
in pursuits of evil ends contrary to the followers’ best interests. Fourthly,
they regard it as a leadership that manipulates followers and in effect,
causes them to lose more than they gain. Finally, they suggest that
transformational leadership lacks the checks and balances of countervailing
interests, influences and power in order to avoid dictatorship and oppression
of a minority by a majority (Bass and Steidlmeier, 1998).
Bass and Steidlmeier (1998) however, purpose
that these critics fail to see the positive aspects of transformational
leadership. Rather than being unethical, authentic transformational
leaders identify the core values and unifying purposes of the organization
and its members, liberate their potential and foster a pluralistic leadership
and satisfied followers (p.18).
Transformational leaders are in pursuit of
three major goals: helping staff members develop and maintain a collaborative,
professional school environment; fostering teacher development; and helping
teachers solve problems more effectively (Leithwood, 1992).
Helping staff members develop and maintain
a collaborative, professional school environment. In a collaborative
school environment the staff members often talk, observe, critique, and
plan together. The norms of collective responsibility and continuous
improvement encourage staff to teach one another and as a result, learn
how to teach better (Leithwood, 1992). Some of the strategies used
by leaders to build and maintain collaborative school cultures include
involving the staff members with setting goals and reducing teachers’ isolation.
In order to support cultural changes, they use bureaucratic mechanisms
such as selecting new staff members who are already committed to the school’s
mission and priorities (Leithwood, 1992). The school leaders, are
therefore, responsible for actively communicating the school’s cultural
values, norms and beliefs and sharing leadership with others by delegating
power to specific school improvement teams (Liontos, 1992).
Fostering teacher development. Leithwood
(1992) suggests that teachers' motivation for development is enhanced when
they internalize goals for professional growth (p.10). This process is
facilitated when they engage in establishing a school mission to which
they are committed. Teachers’ development can be enhanced by giving
them a role in solving non-routine school improvement problems and ensuring
that the goals are clear, explicit and challenging but not unrealistic
(Leithwood, 1992).
Helping teachers solve problems more effectively.
In order to achieve any meaningful school improvement, staff members need
to work harder. Hence, some teachers have come to value transformational
leadership because it acts as a stimulant for engaging them in new activities
and putting forth that "extra effort" (Leithwood, 1992). However,
Leithwood (1992) uncovered practices that leaders primarily use to help
staff work smarter but not harder (p.10). These leaders ensure a
broader range of perspectives from which to interpret the problem.
Additionally, they assist group discussions of alternative solutions, avoid
commitment to preconceived solutions and narrowly biased perspectives by
keeping the group on task. The most significant belief held by these
leaders is that their staff members, as a group, could develop better solutions
than the principal alone (Leithwood, 1992).
According to Leithwood (1992), transformational
leadership has a sizable influence on teacher collaboration and a significant
relationship exists between its aspects and the changes of teachers’ attitudes
toward school improvement and altered instructional behavior (p.12).
In order to bring about this change, the transformational leader must foster
the modal values of honesty, loyalty and fairness and the end values of
justice, equality and human rights (Bass and Steidlmeier, 1998).
Many of the problems that are experienced by principals and teachers relate
to questions of values, ethics and vision (Brubacher et al., 1994).
Hence, transformational leadership has become a benchmark in the workings
of many educational institutions, which has resulted in new roles for the
principal and teachers.
The New Role of the Teacher
The knowledge and skill base of what teachers need to know, and be
able to do, has been broadened and deepened compared to the traditional
role of the teacher. In today’s day and age the new role of the teacher
will incorporate many new domains and take on many new roles. These
include: making a commitment to moral judgment, deepening their understanding
of pedagogy, increasing knowledge in their field, having an understanding
and working knowledge in technology, working in highly interactive and
collaborative ways, working in new structures, developing the habits and
skills of continuous inquiry and learning, and becoming experts in the
change process.
Teachers of the future will inevitably have to make a commitment
to moral purpose. This means that teachers will have to make a difference
in the lives of all students – more prominent, more active, more visible
and more problematic. This must be and integral part in the conceptualization
of the teacher. Although many teachers already have moral purpose,
they do not conceptualize it in this way. The new role of the teacher
involves pushing moral purpose to the forefront and integrating it into
all aspects of teaching (Fullan, 1993).
Teachers must substantially deepen their understanding of pedagogy
and critical pedagogy. Pedagogy is defined as the production of knowledge,
values, and identities. Teachers will continually work on personal vision
encompassing both moral purpose and a much more sophisticated knowledge
of teaching and learning. The shift away from teaching the transmission
of knowledge, to pedagogy, the production of knowledge, is important for
teachers in today’s society (Simon, 1987).
Critical pedagogy is fundamentally concerned with understanding
the relationship between power and knowledge. Knowledge is socially
constructed and deeply rooted in power relations. Critical pedagogy
asks how and why knowledge gets constructed the way it does, and how and
why some constructions of reality are legitimated by the dominant culture,
while others are not. Therefore teachers must use these guidelines
to gain an understanding of critical pedagogy:
1) Taking your time
2) Tossing the texts
3) Asking: but why?
4) Reflecting
5) Conceptualizing and articulating our own philosophy
6) Understanding why and how our beliefs change
7) Naming the power structures: critically reflecting and
acting on them
8) Relearning and Unlearning
9) Acknowledging the powerful emotions of power, racism,
classism and sexism
10) Understanding/being able to articulate new global realities
11) Challenging our long held assumptions about teaching and learning
12) Entering into dialogue
13) Recognizing the contradictions in our own life
14) Recognizing our own power, expertise, knowledge and role
15) Seeing with new eyes
16) Taking time and creating a safe place (McLaren, 1998).
The knowledge base for being an effective teacher has increased dramatically
over the past decade. Teachers today must understand how diverse,
multi-ethnic students learn and develop, and must draw on a repertoire
of teaching strategies to meet a wide range of individual needs.
Therefore, teachers today must incorporate multidimensionality into their
teaching practice. This refers to the large quantity of events and
tasks, which take place in the classroom. A classroom is a crowded
place in which many people with different preferences and abilities must
use a restricted supply of resources to accomplish a broad range of social
and personal objectives. It will be the role of the teacher to incorporate
effective, innovative, teaching strategies in order for all students to
learn in a positive environment (Doyle, 1978).
Teachers of today will also need to be skilled in the vast world
of computerization and technology. Technology takes a special place
in the classroom as a powerful tool for children’s learning by doing. Children's
traditional classroom tools such as pencils, notebooks, and texts are still
vital. However, for children to assemble and modify their ideas, access
and study information, they are inadequate. Computers, video, and other
technologies engage children with the immediacy they are used to in their
everyday lives. Therefore, it is not what equipment is used in the
classroom, but how that equipment is used that will make the difference.
The new role of the teacher will be significantly more complex. They will
have many roles: project manager, tutor, and lecturer. The teacher will
be a member of a team, and not the focus of the classroom. They will provide
technical assistance and creative consultation, rather than directing the
children in the creation of narrowly defined tasks (Forman, Pufall, 1998).
Teachers in today’s society will have to understand that the computer
revolution has created an unexpected byproduct. The consequence
of this has been the emergence of a generation of children weaned on multidimensional,
interactive media sources. A generation who’s understanding and expectations
of the world differ profoundly from that of the generations preceding them.
Teachers today must give these children the education necessary to succeed
in our technologically intense, global world. New forms of educational
practice that build on children's native learning abilities and technological
competence, must replace the existing methods. There are many schools
that remained in the past, while our children have been born in the future.
The result is a mismatch of learner and educator. However, it is not the
children who are mismatched to the schools; the schools are mismatched
to the children. Only by revising educational practice in light of how
our culture has changed can we close this gap, and reunite our schools
with our children and the rest of our society. The teacher will play
an active role in this transition by having an increased knowledge base
and utilizing interactive methods to foster a positive learning environment
for all students in a vastly changing environment.
Today’s teacher must also work in highly interactive and collaborative
ways avoiding the pitfalls of wasted collegiality, while working productively
with other teachers, administrators, parents, business, and community agencies.
This will widen the knowledge base for the teachers of the future compared
to teachers of the past. In doing so, teachers must become committed
to, skilled at and involved in collaborative work cultures inside and outside
the school. (Fullan,1995). The teacher can also develop partnerships
within the community with local business agencies to improve relationships
and open direct communications between the students and the outside world.
The new role of the teacher will require working in new structures.
These structures will include clustered students, require team teaching,
provide common planning time, links to parents and community, and participation
in wider networks of leaning. Teachers today will spend much less
time in classroom teaching, more time interacting with other teachers,
more time preparing for and assessing learning, and sharing a common work
room inside the school (Fullan, 1993).
Teachers today must also be experts in content and develop the habits
and skills of continuous inquiry and learning. They must always try
to seek out new ideas inside and outside their own setting. Therefore,
teachers must lead the way in being continuous learners throughout their
careers. With so much to learn in an ever-changing profession, improvement
is a never-ending proposition. The new role of the teacher will also
require teachers to move beyond the principal as an outside link, and take
leadership into their own hands (Goodland, 1994).
As we advance toward the future, our entire society is changing in
a dynamic global context. Major institutions, including government, industry
and finance are seeking ways to restructure. This will increase their
flexibility and effectiveness in the climate of change. Education is one
of the key sectors in our society that can prepare us for this new world
and ensure our success. In today’s society change is inevitable.
Therefore, it is important that teachers become experts in the change process.
Teachers must have an understanding of how to initiate change despite the
system, how to understand and manage the “implementation dip”, how to simultaneously
help create collaborative cultures and manage conflict.
The new role of the teacher will be one that is gradually mainstreamed
into the classroom over time. Most educators who use technology to implement
the alternative types of pedagogy and curriculum are referred to as "pioneers".
These are the people who see continuous change and growth as an integral
part in their profession, and are the ones who are willing to swim against
the tide of conventional operating procedures. However, to achieve
large-scale shifts in standard educational practices, many more teachers
must alter their pedagogical approaches. There must also be a reform
in school management, institutional structure, and relationships with the
community. This requires that "settlers" (people who appreciate stability
and do not want heroic efforts to become an everyday requirement) must
be convinced to make the leap to a different mode of professional activity
- with the understanding that, once they have mastered these new approaches,
their daily work will be sustainable without extraordinary exertion.
The New Role of the Principal
Principals as transformational leaders have taken on new exciting
roles as they continue to deal with the ever-changing face of education.
These principals use their knowledge and skills to work both internal and
external to the school organization to map new directions, to secure and
mobilize old and new resources, and to respond to present challenges and
perceived future challenges. Effective principals in today’s school system
assume that change is inevitable, necessary and indeed, strive to cause
it. This report will focus on 1) the important traits and values that today's
principals must possess in order to lead transformationally, 2) principals
as agents of change, 3) principals as managers, and 4) their responsibility
of ensuring inclusive education for a diverse school community.
Traits and Values:
Deal and Peterson (1994) claim that principals must possess both technical
and symbolic traits. That is, they must think logically, but at the same
time be expressive and passionate, like that of an artist. Their technical
roles include planner, resource-allocator, coordinator, supervisor, disseminator,
jurist, gatekeeper, and analyst. With respect to symbolic roles, the principal
is regarded as historian, anthropological detective, visionary, symbol,
potter, poet, actor, and leader (Fullen, 1996). Principals who possess
these traits can facilitate internal leadership, communication within the
system hierarchy, management of the school environment, and assessment
of the effectiveness and development of school-based accountability.
In addition to these traits, Patterson (1993) maintains that
there are also certain values that principals need for leadership in tomorrow's
school. The first is openness to participation: it is important to encourage
teachers and students to actively participate in any discussion or decision
affecting them. The second is openness to diversity: effective principals
values diversity in perspectives, leading to a deeper understanding of
organizational reality and an enriched knowledge base for decision making.
The third value is openness to conflict: resolving conflict in a healthy
way leads to stronger solutions for complex issues. The fourth is openness
to reflection: reflecting on their own and others thinking enables principals
to achieve better organizational decisions. Finally, last, but not least,
is principals' openness to mistakes: effective principals acknowledge their
mistakes and learn from them.
It is not always easy to convince people that change is good.
Principals must be resourceful and creative in their efforts to bring about
and respond to changes. To be leaders of change, principals must immerse
themselves in real situations of reform and begin to craft their own theories
of change constantly testing them against new situations and against grounded
accounts of others' expectations (Fullan, 1996).
Principals as Agents of Change:
Change often encounters resistance, in some form or another, be it
from teachers, students or parents. This is a good thing. A culture that
squashes disagreement is a culture doomed to stagnate, because change always
begins with disagreement (Champy, 1995). The challenge for principals is
to make it easy for staff/students/parents to speak up about their concerns,
really listen to them, and pick up on cues and new ways of thinking. This
generates myriads of more productive actions and reactions to situations
of change.
The dawn of the 21st century has seen many schools dealing with whole
school reform. This is especially true here in Newfoundland, as we change
from the denominational to an integrated school system. Principals
are front and center in this transition. The process of restructuring,
retiming and reculturing of schools requires that principals know that
both individualism and collaboration must co-exist. They must know
that differences, diversity and conflict not only are inevitable, but that
they often contain the seeds of breakthroughs, both in learning, and creating
a new, unique school culture. It is critical that principals share ownership
of this reform with teachers, students and parents. Christensen (1994)
found the top behaviors of principals involved in whole school reform were,
‘communicating goals,’ ‘sharing decision-making,’ ‘creating/articulating
school vision’ and ‘supporting staff’.
The principal steeped in leadership for change recognizes the emergence
of School Councils as part of a systemic shift in the relationship between
the communities, and schools that is both inevitable and that contains
the seeds of a necessary realignment with the family and other social agencies
(Fullen, 1996). These councils help mobilize the forces and resources for
change by developing the skills of parents, teachers, students and principals
as leaders in ‘group problem-solving,’ ‘dealing with conflict,’ and ‘making
content expertise accessible’ (1996). The principal, as an agent of change,
is in the middle, fostering, developing and supporting the council.
In short, principals as agents of change have to be prepared for, and
embrace resistance, share ownership of change, develop positive relationships
with school councils and navigate the complex two-way relationship between
the school and the state. Fullen (1996) suggests that principals who develop
leadership for change capacities, learn to control more of their own and
their community's destiny.
Principals as Managers:
Good principals know the importance of management. Traditionally, leadership
as it pertains to decision making has been viewed largely as principal-centered.
However, with the onset of the information age, schools have restructured,
or are in the process of restructuring themselves so that principals and
teachers work together to deal with today’s leadership demands and prepare
for tomorrow’s. In a site-based management system, whereby teachers and
administrators work collaboratively to set the educational policy and agenda
for the school, the responsibility that once rested on the shoulders of
the principal is now spread out amongst the group. The principal’s vote
in decision-making carries the same weight as the teachers and therefore
could be outvoted by others on the committee on any number of decisions.
This type of management has developed a new understanding of and appreciation
for the principal’s role in the successful operation of the school. The
usual tasks of the principal remain unchanged; however as a result of the
shared decision-making, the principal’s role pertaining to the educational
program has changed. Since the educational agenda is determined by consensus,
the principal must now facilitate the building of that consensus. This
involves finding and providing sources of information, serving as a clearinghouse
so committees are not working at cross purposes to each other or system-wide
goals, assisting staff members in providing accountability and encouraging
staff development and experimentation (Strauber, 1990). While these,
too, are traditional tasks of the principal, the difference lies in the
fact that the principal now works more indirectly. Sharing decision-making
may imply that the principal is losing authority. On the contrary, since
the principal’s sphere of communication is much greater, the influence
has actually increased. After all, when a principal makes a decision alone,
he or she is also alone in trying to implement it. By contrast, when the
group makes the decision, the group is ready to get to work at it.
Principals Providing Inclusive Education:
Schools have changed a great deal over the past two decades. A major
difference is the cultural diversity in our schools today. The student
population in most urban schools is comprised of students from all over
the world, Asia, the West Indies, South America, Eastern Europe and Africa.
This diversity challenges principals to come up with ways to establish
and maintain good relationships with these diverse groups and to honor
this diversity in both the content and conduct of their schooling. James
Ryan (1999) describes a number of strategies principals can employ to overcome
these challenges in his paper “Leadership and Diversity”.
Establishing meaningful relationships with diverse members of
the school community involves a huge effort on the part of the principal.
Accessibility is key. This involves making it a priority to talk with people,
getting the message out that you are there for them. Ryan (1990) suggests
that principals should post welcoming signs in appropriate languages; send
out welcoming newsletters; take the initiative to talk to members of the
school community; and get out of the office. Other useful strategies involve
getting out in the community and attend meetings of community organizations.
They have to take the initiative to approach others.
With the demands that are placed on principals in schools today,
they often find themselves hearing what people are saying, but not really
listening. If principals make the effort to really listen, people will
quickly realize when they've been heard, and will begin participating in
greater numbers than ever before (Ryan, 1999). Principals can enhance listening
by making the interactive situation as comfortable as possible, providing
translation services where appropriate, comparing the speaker's experience
to their own, asking questions, and avoiding interrupting those who are
speaking (1999).
Furthermore, in the effort of establishing and maintaining good
relationships with school communities, it is important to learn about the
groups that make up the community. Principals can learn a great deal by
simply walking around the school, by employing various forms of questionnaires,
or by inviting parents and other members of the community to share their
thoughts at school-organized meetings. Another important aspect of the
relationship between principals and school communities is that principals
are obliged to raise students', teachers' and parents' awareness of the
realities of their respective school communities. This can be done through
holding information meetings, orientation events, newsletters, newspapers,
or school handbooks. In addition they can arrange for both informal and
formal meetings, or bring parents in to assist with school activities or,
like students, as formal learners (1999).
Providing inclusive education is just another of the many challenges
that principals are dealing with today. Principals who strive to be transformational
leaders, are much better prepared to take on this challenge, and are more
likely to see the results of their efforts quicker.
Conclusion:
One of the most important factors in creating an effective and
efficient school is its leadership. Principals who take on transformational
leadership roles, will work together with teachers, students, parents and
the community to raise each other to higher levels of morality and motivation
and successfully achieve educational reform. This paper reviewed only a
few of the different roles that transformational principals must perform.
These roles are evolving into new, more exciting roles on a continual basis
as education progresses into the 21st century.
Recommendations
In Transformational Leadership, leaders and followers raise each
other to higher levels of morality and motivation. The text looks
at two schools: Horace Mann Elementary School and Hollibrook Elementary.
These were two completely different schools, one with many rules and structure;
the other was very disorganized. Both schools were changed using
transformational leadership and the results were quite promising.
Transformational leadership involves thinking about ourselves,
our jobs and the nature of the education process. It involves everyone
in the decision-making process to achieve success. It assumes the
staff as a whole can make better decisions as a hole than the principal
alone. Goals have been determined to help staff members develop a
professional school culture, foster teacher development and solve problems
more effectively. To accomplish these goals there are a few strategies
to consider. For one, principals could visit the classroom and encourage
the teachers to visit each others classes, taking responsibility for other
students, not just their own. It is very important to get everyone
involved in determining school goals, beliefs and visions at he beginning
of the year. As long as communication lines are open and the teachers
work together there will more likely be consistency among them in their
teaching and in handling situations. The Principal must have high
expectations of the teachers and expect their efforts and commitment to
be excessive, but also give this effort him/herself.
It is important to let them share ideas and experiment with new
ideas, posing questions for others to think about. The needs and
wants of the staff should be considered. Also, their attitudes and
philosophies should be heard. Using active listening will show them
that they are cared about. When they feel this, they will likely
be more productive.
Bringing workshops to the school that can involve staff participation
gives the teachers an opportunity to share ideas. The principal might
also hold his or her own workshop and share new information from other
conferences he/she attended with staff members. When new staff are
hired they should be encouraged to participate in decision-making.
They should be informed of this type of leadership for the school and what
it involves. Reflective thinking is a process that parents, teachers
and administrators can use for problem solving and decision-making.
Also, teachers who are not happy with this style should be given the chance
to transfer. This helps establish an environment where all those
present are willing to commit fully to the school’s purpose. The
principal might also help teachers work smarter by placing individual problems
in a larger perspective of the whole school, therefore they can work together
to find solutions, and avoiding preconceived solutions. The principal
should not impose his or her opinion or perspective but support this group
effort and guide them by summarizing key points at meetings.
Also, action research teams or school improvement teams are a
way of sharing power. This gives everyone responsibilities and involves
the staff in governance functions. Those who do not participate might
be asked to be in charge of the committee.
Another suggestion is to find out the good things that are happening
and publicly recognize the work of the staff and students who have contributed
to improvements of the school. Writing private notes of appreciation for
special efforts is also quite effective. A principal elevates the
teachers and him/herself to higher levels of morality and motivation.
A principal should use bureaucratic mechanisms to support teachers,
like finding money for projects or providing time for collaborative planning
during workdays. They should try to help avoid problems of limited
time, excessive paperwork and other demands.
All of these ideas should help create a positive, productive
learning environment that serves to accomplish the school’s purpose while
promoting positive relationships, open communication and support of teachers
and students.
The results thus far appear to be positive and studies have shown
this leadership style to have sizable influence on teacher’s attitudes
towards school improvement and altered instructional behavior. Some
feel that this form of leadership can remarkably improve student achievement.
Others see it as just one part of a balanced approach to creating high
performance in schools. Finding that balance is not so easy, but schools
that are restructuring, moving closer to a facilitative way should solve
the problem.
Conclusion
Transformational leadership in the school is a definite advantage
for everyone involved. Our children will benefit from attending school,
but with transformational leadership the environment in and around the
school will dramatically improve. Teachers and administrators working
together, showing each other support and appreciation, will not only promote
improvement in staff relations, but also benefits the students. A
transformational structure will help teachers to become more valued members
of the education community, and will in turn provide the students with
more effective instruction. Cooperation among the staff also sets
an excellent example for the students. All things considered, with
the use of transformational leadership, the children will be at a greater
advantage to learn in a more enjoyable manner, and teachers will be better
able to meet the needs of each and every student.
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