Early techniques of relating behavior to genetics were established with crude science.

• Those considered to be elite in their fields devised experimental methods to reflect there a priori predictions.

• All accounts relate to the application of human behavioral genetics and the establishment of a superior white race.

Socrates (470 - 399 BC)

The establishment of genetics and IQ will be later...
 

The scientific version of Socrates' Tale

Biological determinism :

shared behavioral norms, and the social and economic differences between human groups
-races, classes, and sexes-
arise from inherited, inborn distinctions and that society in this sense is:

• an accurate reflection of biology.

Two forms of early science that persisted to discover this:

• Craniometry (measuring of the skull)
• Psychological testing (various forms including IQ testing)

Caution: Scientific facts do exist! It is the sense of interpretation that leads to erroneous conclusions. Example: idea that intelligence is in the head- all science then dealt with the head.

Why we use and need science?

1.) Reification: the desire to quantify abstract ideas and to place them into entities.
ex: we see mentality as important, we need it to quantify our political divisions, therefore "intelligence" is given to label this abstract ideology.

Where does intelligence reside?: well in the brain... then study the head!

2.) Ranking: ordering complex descending variation as a gradual hierarchical scale. i.e. The Great Chain of Being.
Jesus Christ: A top the Great Chain of Being.
What better way to embody this quantification than to assign each individual person an objective number comparable and concrete: IQ- put the inferior in there place; objectively of course.

American Polygeny and Craniometry (Before Darwin)

The political stigma arises before the science.

People at the bottom of the Great Chain of Being are intrinsically inferior, i.e.. they consist of bad genes, poor brains, etc...

The Ranking:

Whites
Indians
Blacks
Apes

The line of equality between blacks, apes, and gorillas was very small and the line between whites and everything else was large.

"Hard liners" : Blacks are inferior and there slavery is justified. (Benjamin Franklin, Abraham Lincoln (biological inequality), Georges Cuvier, Charles Lyell).

"liberal: abolitionist" Charles Darwin - Hottentots

" Near Rio de Janeiro I lived opposite an old lady, who kept screws to crush the fingers of her female slaves. I have stayed in a house where a young household mulatto, daily and hourly, was reviled, beaten, and persecuted enough to break the spirit of the lowest animal. I have seen a little boy, six or seven years old, struck thrice with a horse whip (before I could interfere) on his naked head for having handed me a glass of water not quite clean ...And these deeds are done and palliated by men who profess to love their neighbours as themselves, who believe in God, and pray that his Will be done on earth! It makes ones blood boil, yet heart tremble, to think that we Englishmen and our American descendents, with their boastful cry of liberty, have been and are so quilty."

"Soft liners": Blacks are inferior because of there social position, but still have rights. Thomas Jefferson said: "Whatever be their degree of talents its no measure of their rights."

**** Keep in mind that these attitudes were not the formation of the peasantry, or the mid class but of the highest and most influential minds of the time ****

Monogeny .vs. Polgeny

Monogeny (Soft): the idea that all have descended from Adam and Eve and that the difference in the races is only due to the extent of fall out (blacks the most). Climate main cause.

Polygeny (Hard): human races are different species; descended from different Adam's. Most handsome and beautiful men come from between the 40th and 50th parallel.

" The Negro is no more a white man than a donkey is a horse or zebra."

Theory of  Recapitulation
ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny

Higher creatures repeat the adult stages of lower animals during their own growth. Blacks are therefore like white children. Evidence: distance between the navel and the penis.

Polygeny becomes the "American theory" through Louis Agassiz. This was a new theory that was building American science in the absence of European influence: hence pushed!

He was an extreme splitter and regarded blacks as separate species:

" It was in Philadelphia that I first found myself in prolonged contact with the negroes ...I experienced pity at the site of this degraded and degenerate race ...I could not take my eyes off there face to tell them to stay far away ...God preserve us from such contact."

Education: " Train whites in mind work, blacks in hand work (GATTACA ?)."

The Science Begins (post Darwin)

Samuel George Morton

Used facts unlike Agassiz to win over the "American School" of polygeny.

At his death in 1851, had collected over 1000 skulls.

Hypothesis
Ranking of races by the physical characteristics of the skull (size).

Test
filled the skulls first with mustard seed (found unsatisfactory) and then with BB's and drained them out into a graduated cylinder to measure capacity (cubic inches).

Results (Suprise!)
Whites........................Whites
Indians                     Anglo-Saxon
Blacks                      Jews
                                 Hindus

also showed that this was the case throughout history.

Morton had apriori concepts that allowed him to twist the data to get the above. For example chose to include or exclude subgroups to fit a priori mean assumptions (Indians), or sex.

Measuring Heads
Paul Broca's (1824-1880): School of Craniology
" No rational man cognisant of facts, believes that the average negro is the equal ...when his disabilities are removed ...he will be able to compete with his bigger brained and smaller jawed rival in a contest to be carried on by thoughts and not by bites - Huxley."

Evolution and the spurge of scientific "numbers" now aligned forces: there must be inferiority in the survival of competing races.

Robert Bennet Bean
published a long article outlining that blacks had inferior intelligence to whites because the front of their corpus callosum (genu) was smaller, the front of the brain = intellect.

" blacks are intermediate between the whites and the ourang-outang."

Mall repeated Beans experiment (measuring brains at random) and found no difference.

Broca: the bigger the brain the more the intelligence. Ran into a problem; found that the "Hottentot venus" had a larger brain than most other Caucasians.

It became a common acceptance to donate ones brain to the Craniological scientists.
 

European Average	1300-1400 g
George Cuvier	1860 g (theory looks good)
Turgenev	2000+ g (wow!!)
Walt Whitman	1282 g
Paul Broca	1424 g (he didn't know it)
Hottentot Venus ***	Largest in France

*** " I have never seen a head more like an ape than this women... Topinard (1878)."

Broca conveniently contributed to the average differences as age, height, and preservation techniques.

Besides this criminals: had brains 1500-1600g
Broca says that this is from execution like death: sudden fluid charge.

Front and back of brain...

              Simply front is better.

• Anterior: higher mental function
• Posterior: mundane sensation and movement.

Broca often unleashed the double whammy: small size and reduced anterior lobe

Cranial Index
Jutting forward of the face and jaws: the less the better (suprised again?)

Foramen Magnum
Foramen Magnum appears in the middle of this image
Relative position of the foramen magnum: indicator of primitive character

• More intelligent-------> F.M. more to the anterior
• More Ape Like -------> F.M. more to the posterior

Conclusion: Conformation of the Blacks approaches the orang - untang and the monkey.

BUT: Blacks have longer faces: Broca subtracted face length and found
 
 

Blacks inferior, and women too. Broca found that women had 14% less brain mass than men.
"Distinguished women ...are as exceptional as any monstrosity ...for example a gorilla with two heads - Le Bon (1879)."
(Inferior groups are interchangeable in biological determinism).

Evolution has dictated the inferiority of women (smaller brains)

"The man who fights for two or more in the struggle for existence, who has all the responsibility and cares for tommorrow ...needs more brain ...than the sedentary woman ...whose role is to raise children, love, and be passive. Topinard (1888)."
Craniological Conclusion: No merit, to many biases, groups do not highly differ.

Lombroso and Criminal Anthropology (1887)
L'uomo Delinquente (The Criminal Man)

• Crime is hereditary.
• Anatomy reflects this (stigmata).
• Criminals: apes in disguise

If criminals are inferior, then animals must commit crime.

Ludicrous ideas
" Adulterous stork with her lover kills her husband"

" Male ant without access to mate: violates a female worker causing her great pain and suffering."

Next logical step: compare criminals to animals (genes make similar structures)

1.) Trilobed nose: monkeys
2.) Inability to blush: "idiots and savages"
3.) Large jaw: low sloping forehead
4.) Feet prehensile in prostitutes
5.) Prominent canine teeth: lemurs
6.) Facial asymmetry: flatfishes

In short: study the criminal and not his surroundings

Major implications:
prescreening of children
army recruits (mainly epileptics)
execution of all criminals

"Theoretical ethics passes over these diseased brains as oil over marble, without penetrating it - Lombroso (1895)."

Moving from gross anatomy to genes -----> brain and IQ